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THE HISTORY OP 'f fI E DEe L I N E AND F ALL OF THE RO l\l N E IP IRE. BY ED\V AltD G lEBON, ESQ. Wit 3f2 IT t t r1 t BY THE REV. II. H. :MIL IAN, p:KEnE DARY OF ST. PETER'S, A D RECTOR OF ST. MA.RGARET'.. W.EST n STER. iJ "Neill Ebítfon, TO :WHICH IS ADDED A COMPLETE l DEX OF THE 'YHOLE 'VOR IN IX VOLUMES. '"'?' ( , { \1 " , ;. '... BOSTON: PIIILLIPS, SAl\IPSON, AND COI\IP ANY. 1 8 5 ,1. CONTENTS OF THE FIFTH VOLUME. CHAPTER XLIX. INTRODUCTION, .WORSHIP, AND PERSECUTION OF nIAGES. - REVOLT OP ITALY AND ROl\IE. -TEMPORAL DOMINION OF TIlE POPES. - CONQUEST OF ITALY BY THE FRANKS. - ESTABLIS}IME T O}<' IMAGES. - CHARAC- TER AND CORONATIO OF CIlARLEl\IAG E. - RESTORATION AND DECAY OF THE ROMA.S E)IPIRE IN THE WEST.-I DEPENDENCE OF ITALY.- CONSTITUTION OF THE GER?lL\. IC BODY. .... D. PAGE. Introduction of Images into the Christian Church,... . .. .. ... ... 1 Their Worship,............... ... ... ... ... .. . ... ...... .... ... . 3 The Image of Edessa, ... . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4 I ts Copies,. .................................................. 6 Opposition to Image- 'V orship,. ... ... ... ... ... ... ..... ... . ...... 7 726-840. Leo the Iconoclast, and his Successors,.. . ... .. . . .. . ... .. . . 9 754. Their Synod of Constantinople, ............................... 10 Their Creed, ..................................................... 11 726-77:j Their Persecution of the Images and MOl}ks,...... .... .... _ Sta te of Italy,.... . . . . .. .. . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . .. . . . . .. . . . . .. ... .. 14 727. Epistles of Gr gory II. to the Emperor,.. .... ...... ...... .. . ... 16 728. Revolt of Italy, ................................................ 18 Republic of Rome,.. . ... .. . . ... . ... ... ...... ... ... ... . ... ... .... 21 730-752. Rome attacked by the Lombards, .......................... 23 754. ller Deliverance by Pepin, .......................... ... ... .. . ... 25 774. Conquest of Lombardy by Charlemagne, ....................... 27 ;51, 153, 7G8. Pepin and Charlemagne, Kings of France,............. 27 Patricians of Rome, ...... . . . . . . . . .. . . . . .. .. . . .. . . .. . . . . ... . ... 29 Donations of Pepin a11(l Charlemagne to the Popes,. .. . . ... . .... :n Forgery of the Donation of Constantine,....... .. . ... .. . . .. . ... 33 780. Restoration of Images in the East by' the Empress Irene,. ...... 36 787. V1lth General Council, IId of ice,........................ ..... 37 842. Final Establishment of Images by the Empress Theodora,...... 38 794. Reluc.tance of the Franks an(1 of Charlemagne, ....... .. . ....... 39 774-800. Final Separation of the Popes from the Eastern Empire,.... 40 600. Coronation of Charlemagne as Emperor of Rome and of the \Vest, 42 IV CONTENTS. . D. r...cz. :768 814. neign and Character of Charlemagne,........... .. . . .. .. 44 Exten t of his Empire, ........................................ 48 In France,... . ... ... .... .. ..... ... ... ... ... ........ ... . .... 48 Spain, .. . . .. .'. . ... ... ... . . ... . . . . ... .. . ... ... . .. . . .. .. .. .. 49 Italy,.....................................................49 GerJuany,. .. . . .. . ... .. . . .. . ... .. . ... ... ... .. . . ... . ... . .. .. 50 II ungar)", . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . .. .. . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . .. . . . . .. 50 IIis Neighbors and Enemies,.................. .. . ... .. . . .. . .. 51 His Successors,...... .. . . . . . . . . . . . .. .. . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 53 S 14-887. In I tal y , . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . .. .. . . . . .. .. 53 911. In Germany,.. . ... .. . . .. . . " .. . . .. . ... .. . . .. . . .. . ... ... . .. . .. 63 987. In !<'rance, ...... .. . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 53 814-840. Le,,,is the Pious,...... . . . . .. . ... ... .. . . . . ... . .. . ... .. . ... 54 840-856. Lothaire I., ...... .. .. .. . . ... . ... ... ... ... .. . . .. . ... ..... 54 8,)6-875. Le\\"is II., .................................... ... ... .... 54 888. Division of the Empire,.. . . .. . . .. . ... .. . . .. . . ... . . . . ... . . . ... 64 962. Otho, King of Germany', restores and appropriates the "\Vestel'n Empire, .. . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . .. . . .. . . .. .. . . .. . . .. .. . . . .... 5;j Transactions of the 'Vestern and Eastern Empires,.. . ... ... ... 56 800-1060. Authority of the Emperors in the Elections of the Popes,. 58 Disorders, . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. ... . .. .. . . .. .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 59 1073. Reformation and Claims of the Church,. .. . ... .... .. . ... .. . ... 61 Authority of the Emperors in Rome, ....... ........ ...... .... 62 932. Revolt of Alberic, .... . . . . . .. ... . .. .. . ... .. . . .. .. . . .. . ... .. .. 62 967. Of Pope John XII.,.. . . .. . ... .. . ... .. . ... .. .... ... . ... ... .... G3 Ð98. Of the Consul Crescentius,. .. . . .. . ... ... . ... ... ... . .... ... ... G3 774-1250. The Kingdom of Italy,........................... ...... 64 1152-1190. Frederic I.,.... ...... ...... ...... ...... .......... ...... 66 11Ð8-12.50. Frederic II.,.... . . . . . . . .. . .... .. . . . . . . .. .. . . ... . .. . . . .. 67 814-12 0. Independence of the Princes of Germany,............... 68 1250. The Germanic Constitution,.................................. 69 1347-1378. 'Yeakness and Poverty of the German Emperor Charles IV. , . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 71 1356. Iris Ostentation,.............................................. 72 Contrast of the Power and Modesty of Augustu! , ............. 73 C II APT E R L. DP.SCRIPTION OF ARAnIA AXD ITS I"SHABITA!\TS. - BIRTH, CHARACTIm, AND DOCTRIXE OF ::\IAIIO:\Ir.T. - liE PREACHES AT :MECCA. - FUES TO MEDINA. - PROPAGATES HIS REI.IGION BY THE SWORD. - YOLUXTARY OR RELUCTAXT SUB:\IISSIO OF THE ARAns. - IllS DEATII A D SUC- CESSORS. - TIlE CLADIS AXD FORTUXES OF ALl AXD IIIS DESCENDANTS. Description of _J\.rabia, ...... .. . . .. .. . . .. . . .. . . .. . . .. . . .. .. . . .. 74 The Soil and Climate,......................................... 7ó CONTENTS. v ... D P.A.GI:. Division of thp Sandy, the Stony, and the Happy Arabia, ...... 77 Ianners of the Bedoweens, or Pastoral Arabs, ..:............. 71 The Horse,...... . . . . . . . . . . . ... . . . . .. .. . . .. .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 78 The Camel, . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. .. . . .. .. . . .. . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 79 Cities of Arabia,......................................... .. .. 80 1vlecca , ...................................................... 81 Her Trade,.. . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . .. .. . . . . . . . . . . . . 81 National Independence of the Arabs,......................... 82 Their domestic Freedom and Character, ...... ... ....... ...... 85 Civil 'Vars and private Revenge, ............................. 81 Annual Truce, .............................................. 89 Their Social Qualifications and Virtues,.............. .. . . . .. . . 89 Love of Poetry, .................... .. . . .. . . .. . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . 90 Examples of Generosity,...... .. .. . .. ... . .. . ... .. . . ... . .. . ... 91 Ancient Idolatry,........ .. . ... ... . ... . ... . ... . ... ..... .. .... 92 The Caaùa J or Temple of :Mecca, .............................. 93 Sacrifices and Rites,...... . . . ... .. . ... .. . ... . .. . ... ... . ... ... 95 Introduction of the Sabia-ns,.... . .. . . .. . . .. . . .. . ... .. . . ... ... . 96 The 1\Iagians, ............................... .. . . .. . . . . .. . . . . . 97 The J e,,'s,. . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 91 The Chris tia ns, . . . . .. . . . . . . .. . . . . .. ... . ... .. . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 97 569-60!). Birth and Education of bhomí't,.... . . . . . . . . . .. . . .. . ... 98 Deliverance of J\lecca, ...... .. . . .. . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . ... .. . . . .. . . 99 Qualifications of the Prophet,...... . .. . .. .. . . .. .. eo .. .. ... .., 101 One God, ...................... . . . . .. .. . . .. . . .. . . . . . .. ... . .. 104 Mahomet the Apostle of God, and the last of the Prophets, .... 106 1\Ioses, . . . . . . . . .. .. . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . .. .. . . .. .. . . .. . . .. 101 J esUiS, .................................. ... . .. .. . . . . . . . . " .. 108 The Koran, ............................ .. . ... .. . .... .. . . .. . .. 109 1\Iiracles, . . . . .. .. . . .. .. . . .. .. - . .. .. . . .. .. . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. III Precepts of Mahomet - Prayer, Fasting, Alms, ..... ... .... .. .. 113 Resurrection, . . . . . . . . . . . . .. .. . . .. ... . .. .. . . . . . . . . .. .. . . . . . . .. 116 lIel1 and Paradise,.. . ... .. . ... . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . .. 117 609. :Mahomet prpaches a.t Mecca,.. . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . .. .. . . .. . . . . . . .. 120 613-622. Is opposed by the Korcish,........... eo .. . .. ... .. . ... .... 123 6 2. And driven from 1\Iecca,.. . . .. . . . . . . .. .. . . .. . . . . .. .. . . . . . . .. .. 12 ü22. Receh'cd as Prince of Meùina,.. eo .. . . .. . . . . . . ... ... . .. . .. .. .. 125 () 2-632. His regal Dignity, ...................................... 127 lIe declarcs 'Var against the Infidels,... . .. .. .. .... .. . . .. . .... 128 His defensive 'Vars against the Korcish of Mccca, ............ 130 623. Battle of Beder,........ . . . . .. . . .. .. . . .. .. . . .. . .. . . . . . . . . .... 131 Of Ohud, . . . . . . .. . . .. . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . .. .. . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . .. ] 32 G25. The Nations, or the Ditch,......................... ... . . . . . .. 133 623-627. Mahomet subdues the Jews of Araùia,........ .. . ... .. . ... 133 fl29. Submission of Iecca,....... . .. . . . . .. . . . . . . .. . . . . .. . . . . . . . . .. 135 629--632. Conquest of Arabia, .................................... 133 629, 630. First 'Yar of the Mahomctans against tho Roman Emrirc,. 140 a. VI CONTENTS. A. J) 632. 680. Posterity of l\'lahomet and Ali,............................... Success of )Iahomet, ........................................ Permanency of his Religion,................................. His :r.lerit towards his Country,............................... "AGE I>eathof Iabornet,.......................................... 143 His Character, .............................................. 146 Private Life of Mahomet, .................................... 148 His Wives,...... . . . . . . . . .. . . .. . . .. .. . . .. .. . . .. .. . . . . . . . . .. .. 149 llndChildren,...............................................161 Character of Ali, ............................................ 152 Reign of Abubeker J .. . . .. ... . .. .. . . .. . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . .. .. . . .. 153 Reign of Omar, .... . . . . . . . . .. .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 154 Iteignof Othman,........................................... 155 Discord of the Turks and Persians,. ... . .. . . .. . ... .. . . .. . . .... 155 157 158 161 162 165 167 167 168 Reign of Ali,........................................... 632. 634. 644. 655. 655-660. 655, or 661-680. Reign of l\Ioawiyah,.. .. . '.. .. . ... .. . ... .. . . .. . ... 680. ]Death of Othman, ........................................... ])eath of lIoseinJ..... ................... .................. CHAPTER LI. THB CONQUEST OF PERSIA, SYRIA, EGYPT, AFRICA, AND SPAIN, BY TLB ARABS OR SARACENS. - EMPIRE OF TilE CALIPHS, OR SUCCESSOR.., OJ' MAHOMET. -STATE OF THE CHIUSTIA:-I8, ETC., UNDER THEIR GCVERN- !dENT. The Arabs return to Damascus, .............................. 8M. The City ig taken by Storm and Capitulation,... ... ... . ... · .... Pursuit of the Damascenes,.................................. Fair of Abyla, . ............................................ 170 172 174 176 177 180 180 182 183 185 186 188 190 192 194 196 198 200 202 632. Union of the Arabs, ...... " . . .. .. . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . .. .. . . . . . . . . Character of their Caliphs,................................... Their Conquests,.................. .. . ... ... ... .. . . .. . . .. .. . . Invasion of Persia, ...... .. . ... .. . . .. . ... ... . .. . . .. . ... ... ... 636. Battle of Cadesia,.... ... ... .... .... ... ... ... ... ... . ... ... .... Foundation of Bassora, ...... ............ .................... 637. Sack of l\Iadayn, ............................................ Foundation of Cufa, .... .. . ... .. .. .. . ... ... . ... . ... . ... . .... . 637 -651. Conquest of Persia, .... ... ... ... . ... ... . ... ... ... ... ... . 6.51. Death of the last King, ...... ... . .. . ... ... . ... ... ... . ... . ... . 710. 'fhe Conquest of Transoxiana,...... ... ... ... ... ... .... .. .. ... . 632. Invasion of SYRIA, .......................................... Siege of Basra,...... . . . . . . . . .. . . .. ... . .. .. . . .. .. . . .. . . . · . . . · 633. Siege of Damascus,.. . . .. . . . . . . . . .. .. . · . . . · . · .. . . .. . . · · .. . . . . 633. Battle of Aiznadin,.................. .. . . . · · . · · .. . . .. .. . · . . . . CONTENTS. VB P-,c. Sieges of Heliopolis and Emesa,. ... . ...... .. . . ... . ... .'. .... 204 Battle of Yermuk,........ ... ... . ... . .. . ... ... . . .. . . .. . . .. .. 206 Conquest of Jerusalem. ......... .. . ... .. . ... .. . ... .. . ... .... 209 Conquest of Aleppo and Antioch,.... ...... .... ...... .... .... 212 Flight of Heraclius, ........................................ 214 End of the Syrian "\V ar,.. . . .. . . ... . .. . . ... . ... . .. .. . .. . . .. .. 215 633-639. The Conquerors of Syria, ...... ... . ... ... ... ..... . .. . ... 216 639-655. Progress of the Syrian Conquerors, ..................... 217 EGYPT. Character and Life of Amrou,............. .. . . .. .... 219 638. Invasion of Egypt, ................. ... ... ... . .. . . .. . ... .. .. 221 The Cities of Memphis, Babylon, and Cairo,....... . .. . ... . . .. 222 V oluntary Submission of the Copts or J acobites, ............. 223 Siege and Conquest of Alexandria, .......... ...... ...... .... 225 'l'he Alexandrian Library, ... . . . . . . . . . . . .. .. . . .. . . . . . . . . . .. .. 228 Administration of Egypt,.. . . .. . ... .. . ... ... . ... ... ... . ... ... 231 Riches and Populousness,................................... 233 fU. AFRICA. First Invasion by Abdallah, ........................ 23.5 The Præfect Gregory and his Daughter,.... .. . ... ... . .. ... ... 237 Victory of the Arabs, ..... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . .. .. 237 665-689. Progress of the Saracens in Africa,.. . . .. . ... . . . ... .. . ... 239 670-675. Foundation of Cairoan,.... .. . ... . .... .. . ... ... . .. . . .... 243 692-698. Conquest of Carthage,.... .. . . .. ... . .. . . .. .. . ... ... . .. .. 244: 698-709. Final Conquest of Africa, .............................. 246 Adoption of the ]'-Ioors,. . . . . . . . . .. .. . . .. .. . . .. .. . . . . . . . . . . .. 247 709. SPÃIN. First Temptations and Designs of the Arabs, ........ 248 State of the Gothic Monarchy, .... ... ... ... ... .. .... .... .... 249 710. The first Descent of the Arabs,...... .. . ... ... ... .. . ... ... ... 2.51 111. Their second Descent,... ... .. . . .. ... ... ... ... . ... . ... . .. . ... 252 And Victory,...... .. . . .. .. . ... . .. ... .. . . .. .. . ... . .. . . .. .. .. 2.j2 Ruin of the Gothic ]'-Ionarchy, ...... ... ... .. . '.' .... ... . .... 2.-53 712, 713. Conquest of Spain by M usa, ............................ 256 714. Disgrace of l\Iusa,.......................................... 259 Prosperity of Spain under the Arabs, ...... ....... .... . ...... 261 Religious Toleration, ....................................... 263 Propagation of Mahometanism,............ .. . ... ... ... .. .... 264 Fall of the J\lagians of Persia, .............................. 264 749 Decline and Fall of Christianity in Africa,.. . ... .... .... .. . ... 267 1149 And . Spain,................................................ 268 Toleration of the Christians,................... ... .......... 269 Their Hardships, .... .. . · ... .... . ... . . ... . .... .. . . .. . . .. . ... 270 718 The Empire of the Caliphs,... ... .... .... ...... ........ ...... 271 A. D. 635. 636. 637. 638. .iii CONTENTS. CHAPTER LII. rIlE T'YO SIEGES OF COXSTANTINOPLE BY THE ARABS. -- THEIR INVASION OF }'RANCE, AlS'D DE:FK-\.T BY CHARLES MARTEL. - CIYIL WARS OF THE O).IMIADES AND ABBASSIDES. - LEARNING OF THE ARABS. - LUXURY OF 'l'HE CALIPHS. -NAVAL ENTERPRISES O CRETE, SICILY, AND ROl\IE. -DECAY AND DIVISION OF THE E}iPIRE OF TUE CALIl)IIS.- DEFEATS AXD VICTORIES OF THE GREEK El\lPERORS. &. D. PAGE The Limits of the Arabian Conquests, ........................273 C>()8-675. First Siege of Constantinople by the Arabs, .............. 273 iJ77. Peace and Tribute, .......................................... 276 il6-718. Second Siege of Constantinople,.. . ... ... ... ...... .... .... 278 Failure and Retreat of the Saracens,... . .. .... ... ... .. . ... .... 282 Inven tion and Use of the Greek Fire,......................... 282 721. Invasion of France by the Arabs, .. . . .. . ... .. . . .. ... . ... . .. . .. 285 '/31. Expedition and Victories of Abderame,.. . ... ... ..... ...... .... 287 732. Defcat of the Saracens by Charles Martel,. .. . ... ... . .. .. .. . . .. 289 They retreat before the Franks,. .. . ... .. . ... .. . ... .. . ... .. . ... 291 746-750. Elevation of the Abbassides, ..........:................. 291 730. Fall of the Onlmiades,.... ... ... ... . ....... . ... ... .... ... . .... 294 755. Revolt of Spain,............................................. 295 Triple Division of the Caliphate,... ... .. . ... .... ...... .... .... 296 750-960. Magnificence of the Caliphs, ............................ 296 Its Consequences on private and public Happiness, ............ 299 754-813. Introduction of Learning among the Arabians,.. . ... ... . .. 300 Their real Progress in the Sciences,...... . .. .... ... ... ... . .... 302 'Vant of Erudition, Taste, and Freedom, ..................... 306 781-805. Wars of Harun al Rashid against the Romans,..... ...... 308 823. The Arabs subdue the Isle of Crete, .. ...... .. .. ... . .... ... ... 311 827-878. And of Sicily,...... ...... . ...... ...... .... ...... ........ 312 846. Invasion pf Rome by the Saracens,... ... .. . . .. .. . . .. . . .. . . .. .. 31 { 849. Victory and Reign of Leo IV. ...... .......... .......... ...... 315 8..32. Foundation of the Leonine City,... . .... .. .... .... ...... .. .... 317 838. The Amorian 'Var between Theophilus and Motassem,. .. . . .. .. 317 841-870. Disorders of the Turkish Guards, ...... ... . .. . ... ... . .... 321 R90-9-51. Rise and Progress of the Carmathians,... ... . . . . ... .. . . .. 322 DOO. Their nlilitary Exploits,...................................... 323 929. They pillage 1Iecca,.. . . .. . . .. .. . ... ... ... . . . ... .. . . .. . . .. . . .. 321: 800-Ð36. Itevolt of the Pro,'inces, ................................ 325 The Indepenùen t Dynasties,.. . . ... . .. . . .. . . .. . ... .. . . .. . . .. .. 326 800-941. The Aglabites,... . .. . . .... ... ... .. .. ... . .... ... . .... .... 326 82.9-907. The Edrisites, .... .. . ... .. . . .. . . .. . . . . . ... .. . ... .. . . .. .. 32G 813-872. The Taherites,... . .. . . .. .. . . .. ... . .. .. . . . . . . .. ... . .. . . .. 326 872-902. The Soffarides,.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 327 874-999. The Sanlanides,... ..... .. . ... .... . ...... .... ............ 321 C,ONTENTS. IX A. D. PAGE. 868-905. The Toulunides, ........................................ 327 934-9G8. '{he lkshidites, ...... .. . . .. . . .. . .., ... . .... .. . . .. . . . .... 321 892--tOOl. The Hamadanites, ..................................... 328 933-1055. 1'he Bowides, .... .. . ... .. . . .. . ... .. . . .. . . . ... .. . . .. . ... 328 936. Fallen State of the Caliphs of Bagdad,.... .. . ... ... . .. . . ...... 328 960. Enterprises of the Greeks,....... .......... ... ".. ............. 330 Reduction of Crcte,.. . . .. . ... .. . . .. . . .. . . .. . . .. . . ... . ... . .. .. 330 963-975. The Easte-rn Conquests of Nicephorus Phocas and John Zimisces,. ... . .. . . .. ... . .. .. . . .. .. . . .... .. . ... ... . .. .. 331 Conquest of Cilicia,...............".... ... ... ... . .... .... .... 332 Invasion of Syria,. .. . .. . . .. . ... .. . . .. . . .. . . .. . ... .. . . .. . . .. .. 332 Recovery of Antioch, ....................................... 333 Passage of the Euphrates, .... ... . .... .... ... ..... .. . ... ..... 333 Danger of Bagdad, ...... . . . . .. .. . . .. .. . ... .. . . ... . . . . . ... ... 334: CI-IAPTER LIII. STATE OF THE EASTER EMPIRE IN THE TEXTH CENTURY. - EXTENT AXD DIVISIOY. -WEALTH AND REVENUE. - PALACE OF CONSTANTIXo- PLE. - TITLES AXD OFFICES. - PRIDE AXD POWER OF THE E IPERORS. -TACTICS OF THE GREEKS, ARABS, AND FRANKS. - LOSS OF THE LATIX TOKGUE. - STUDIES AKD SOLITUDE OF THE GREEKS. Iemorials 'of the Greek Empire,. . .. . ... ... ... ... . .... ..." .... 335 'V orks of Constantine Porphyrogenitus, .......... ...... ...... 336 Thcir Imperfections,.." . .. . . .... ... . . . . . .. . . . . . . .. . . . . .. . . .. .. 338 Embassy of Liu tprand. ........................ .. . ... .. . . .. .. 340 The Themes, or Provinces of the Empire, and its Limits in every Age, .... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. .. . . .. .. . . . . . . . . . . .. 340 General 'Vealth and Populousness, ..................". . . .. .. 342 State of Peloponnesus: Sclavonians, ......................... 343 Freemen of Laconia, ........................................ 344 Cities and Revenue of Peloponnesus, ......................... 345 :Manufactures, especially of Silk,. . . . .. . . .. . ... .. . . .. . . . . . . . . .. 345 Trausported from Greece to Sicily,.... .. ... . ... . .. .. .. .... .... 347 Rcvenue of the Greck Empire,............................... 348 Pomp and Luxury of the Emperors,.......................... 349 The Palace of Constantinople,.. . . .. . . .. . . .. . . .. . . .. . . .. . . .. .. 350 Furniture and _. t('ndance,.. . . .. . . .. . . . ø. ... .. . . .. . . ... . ... .. 3.51 Honors and Titles of the Imperial Family,...... . ...... ........ 3.53 Officers of the Palace, the State, and the Army,... . ........ . .... 35,.1: Adoration of the Enlperor,... . .. .. . .. . ... .. . ... ... ... ... . .... 356 Reception of Ambassadors, ... . . . . . .. .. . . ., . . .. . . .. . . .. . . ., .. 3.56 Proccssions and A,2clamations, ............................... 3-57 MarJ5age of the Cæsars with foreign Nations,.... ...... .. .. . ... 3.59 Ima.ginary Law of Constantinl', .............................. 360 " CONTENTS. A. D PAGB. 733. The first Exception, ....................................,.... 360 941. 'J.'he second, ................................................. 360 943. 1'}le third,................................................... 360 972. Otho of Gernlany, ....... .. . ... ... . .. . ... ... . .. . . ... . ... . .... 362 988. ,V olodomir of Russia,...... ... ... .. . ... .. . ... .. . ... ... ....... 362 Despotic Po\ver, .. . . . .. .. . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . .. . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . .. 363 . Coronation Oath,............................................ 363 :Military Force of the Greeks, the Saracens, and the Franks, .'. 364 Navy of the Greeks,.. . . ... . .. . ... .. .. .... ... . ... ... ... . ... ... 364 Tactics and Character of the Greeks,.......................... 367 Character and Tactics of the Saracens,.... ... . ... ... .. . ... .. .. 369 The Franks or Latins, ....................................... 371 Their Character and Tactics,................................. 373 Oblivion of the Latin Language,.............................. 374 The Greek Emperors and their Subjects retain and assert the Name of Romans, .................................... 371 Period of Ignorance, ........................................ 377 Revival of Greek Learning, ..................................378 Decay of Taste and Genius,.... .. . . ... . .. . . .... ... ... .. . . .... 381 Want of National Emulation,....... .............. ... ........ 382 CHAPTER LIV. ORIGIN AND DOCTRINE OF THE PAULI ClANS. -THEIR PERSECUTION BY THE GREEK EMPERORS. - REVOLT IN ARMENIA, ETC. - TRANSPLANTA- TION IKTO THRACE. - PROPAGATION IN THE WEST. - THE SEEDS, CHARACTER, AND COXiEQUENCES OF THE REFOR)IATION. Supine Superstition of the Greek Church,.. .. . ... .. . ... ... ... 384 660. Origin of the Paulicians or Disci pIes of St. Paul,............. 38.5 Their Bible, ...... .. . . .. . . . . .. .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 386 ,.he Simplicity of their Belief and 'V orship, . . . . .. .. . . .. . . .. .. 387 They hold the two Principles of the Magians and Manichæans, 388 The Establishment of the Paulicians in Armenia, Pontus, &c., 3Sg Persecution of the Greek Emperors,......................... 390 845--880. Revolt of the Paulicians,............................... 391 They fortify Tephrice, ...................................... 392 And pillage Asia tinor, .................................... 393 Their Decline,... . . . . ... . . . . .. .. . ... .. . ... . '. . .. . ... .. . . .. .. 394 Their Transplantation from Armenia to Thrace, .............. 394 Their Introduction into Italy and France,...:................ 396 1200. Pcrsecu lion of the Albigcois, ... ... .. . ... ... . .. . . .. . ... .. . ... 398 Character and Consequences of the Reformation,............. 399 CONTENTS. 71 CHAPTER LV. 'l'HB BULGARIANS. - ORIGIN, :MIGRATIONS, AND SETTLEMENT OF THB HUNGARIANS. - THEIR INROADS IN THE EAST AND WEST. - THE :MON. A RCHY OF RUSSIA. - GEOGRAPHY AND TRADE. - WARS OF THE RUS- SIAN8 AGAINST THE GREEK E IPIRE. - CO VERBION OF THE BA.RBA- RIANS. A D. 680. Emigration of the Bulgarians,...... ...... ... ... . ... ... ... ... 900. Croats or Sclavonians of Dalmatia, .......................... 640-1017. First Kingdom of the Bulgarians,...................... 884. Emigration of the Turks or Hungarians,..................... Their Fennic Origin,...... .. . ... .. . . ... . ... . ... . ... ... ...... Tactics and Manners of the Hungarians and Bulgarians,...... Establishment and Inroads of the Hungarians, ............... Victory of Henry the Fo,vler, ............................... rAG.. 405 407 407 410 412 414 416 418 Of Otho the Great, ...... ...... .. . . .. . . . . . . . . .. .. . . . .. . . . . .. 419 421 423 424 427 The first,.... .. . . .. . ... .. . . .. . ... . ... . ... . ... .... . .. . . .. .... 429 The second,.... . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . .. .. . . .. ...... .. . . .. .. . . .. 429 The third,.... . . . . .. . . .. . . . . .. .. . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . .. . . . . .. . . .. 429 The fourth,..... ".. ... .. . . .. . . ... . .. . . ... . ... . ... . ... . ... ... 430 Negotiations and Prophecy, ............ ...... ......... ... ... 430 9,j5--973. Reign of Swatoslaus, ............. ...... ............ ... 431 970-973. His Defeat by John Zimisces, .......................... 432 864. Conversion of Russia, ...................................... 434- 955. Baptism of Olga,...... ... . .. .... . .... .. . . .. . ... .. .. .... .... 435 988. Of W 0 lodomir J . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . .. . . .. .. . . . . . . .. . . .. .. . . .. 436 800-1100. Christianity of the North, ................... .......... 437 900. 889. 934. 955. 950. Origin of the Russian J\lonarchy,............................ The Varangians of Constantinople,.......................... Geography and Trade of Russia, ............................ Naval Expeditions of the Russians against Constantinople, ... 865. 904. 941. 1043. CIIAPTER LVI. rUE SARACENS, FRANKS, AND GREEKS, IN ITALY.-FInST ADVENTURE) AND SETTLEMENT OF THE NOR IANS. - CHARACTER AND CONQUEST 0:1 ROBERT GUISCARD, DUKE OF APULIA. - DELIVERANCE OF SICILY B'! HIS BROTHER ROGER. - VICTORIES OF ROBERT OVER THE EMPERORS 0:1 THE EAST AND WEST. - ROGER, KINO OF SICILY, INVADES AFRICA AND GREECE. - THE EMPEROR IANUEL COl\INENTJS. - W ARB OF THE GREEK8 AND N.oRMA.NS. - EXTINCTION OF THE NOR?IANB. 840-1017. Conflict of the Saracens, Latins, and Greeks, in Italy, .. 440 871. Conquest of Bari,.. . ... .. . . .. .. . ... .. . . .. . ... . ... . .. . . ... ... 441 890. New Province of the Greeks in Italy,.. .... ... ... ... ... ...... 442 v83 Defeat of Otho III., ...... ... ... .. . ... ... ... .. . ... ...... .... 44 XII CONTENTS. A. D. P.l.GEo necdotesJ............................................ ..... 444 1016. Origin of the Normans in Italy, ............................. 446 1029. Foundation of Ayersa, ...... ... .............. ...... ...... ... 449 1038. The Normans serve in Sicily, ................................ 450 1040-1043. Their Conquest of Apulia, ................... .... .. . ... 451 Character of the Normans,... . .. . . ... ... ... ... .. . ... .. . . .... 452 1046. Oppression of Apulia,........... ...... .... ...... ........ .... 453 1049-1054. League of the Pope and the two Empires, .............. 454 1053. Expedition of Pope Leo IX. against the Normans,...... .. . . .. 455 I-lis Defeat and Captivity,...... .... .... .... ... ... ... ... ...... 455 Origin of the Papal Inyestitures to the Normans,............. 4t3G 1020-1085. Birth and Character of Robert Guiscard, ......... ...... 457 1054-1080. IIis Ambition and Success,. .. .. .. .... ... ... ... ... ... ... 459 1060. Duke of Apulia,............................................ 460 His Italian Conquests, .... ... ... .......... .... ... .... ........ 461 School of Salerno,.......................................... 462 Trade of Alnalphi,...... ... ... .. . ... ... ... ...... ... ... ...... 463 1060-1090. Conquest of Sicily by Count Roger, ...... ...... .... .... 464: 1081. obert invades the Eastern Empire, . ...... ... ................ 466 Siege of Durazzo,.. . ... .. . . .. . ... .. . ... .. . ... .. . . .. . . ... .... 468 The Army and Iarch of the Emperor Alexius,. .. .... ... . .... 470 Battle of Durazzo,.... .. . ... . . . . .. .. . ... .. . . .. . ... ... . .. . . .. 473 1082. Durazzo taken, . . . . . .. ... . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . .. .. . . . . .. 474 Return of Robert, and Actions of Bohemond,................ 475 1081. The Emperor Henry III. inyited by the Greeks,. ... ..... ... ... 476 1081-1084. TIe sieges ome,........ .. . . .. . . . ... ... . . . . . ... .. . . .... 478 Flies before Robert,. .. . . .. . . . . .. .. . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . .. .. 479 1084. Second Expedition of Robert into Greece,...... ...... .... .... 479 1085. His Death, .... ...... ... . . ... ... .. .... .... .... ...... ........ 4-81 1101-11.54. Reign and Ambition of Roger, great Count of Sicily,.... 482 1127. Duke of Apulia, ............................................483 1130-'-1139. First King of Sicily, .................................. 484 1122-1152. His Conquests in Africa, .............................. 485 1146. His Invasion of Greece,..................................... 486 His Admiral delivers Louis YII. of France,...... .. . . .. . . .. .. 487 Insults Constantinople, ...... . ...... .'..... ... ... ... ... ...... 488 1148, 1149. The Emperor Manuel repulses the Normans, ........ .. .. 488 1155. He reduces Apulia and Calabria, ............................ 489 1155-1174. His Design of acquiring Italy and the "\Vestern Empire,. 490 Failure of his Designs,... . ... ... ... ... .... ...... .... ... . .... 491 1156. Peace "rith the N ornlans,.. .. .. . . .. .. . ... .. . . .. . ... . . . . .. . ... 492 1185. Last 'Var of the Greeks and Normans,.............. ......... 492 11.54-1166. 'Yilliam 1. the Bad, King of Sicily,..................... 493 1166-1189. "\Villiam II. the Good,........................;......... 494 Lament llion of the Historian Falcandus, .................... 495 1194. Conquest of the KingdQm of Sicily by the Emperor Henry VI.. 496 1204. Final Extinction of the NQl"mans, .. .... .. . ..:' ... . ... ... ... ... 498 CONTENTS. x.úi CHAPTER LVII. 'l'HE TURKS OF THE HOUSE OF SELJUK. '" " THEIR R "'\"'OLT AGAINST M.AHMUD COXQUEROU. OF HINDOSTA . -TOGRUL SUBDUES PERSIA, AND PROTECTS THE CALIPllS. - DEFEAT AXD CAPTIVITY OF THE EMPEROR ROMA-NUS DIOGENES BY ALP ARSLAS. - POWER AND IAG:XIFICEXCE OF MALEK SHAH. - CONQUEST OF ASIA MINOR AND SYRIA. - ST.\.TE AND OPPRES- SIOS OF JERUSALE!\I. - PILGRHIAGES TO THE HOLY SEPULCHRE. .I.. D. PAGE. THE TURKS,.. .... .. . . . .. . ... ... ... . . .. . ... .. . . ... ... .. . ... 499 997--1028. Mahmud the Gaznevide, ....... u. .... .... ...... ...... 499 His twelve Expeditions into Hindostan, ... . .. . ... .. . ... .. . ... 601 His Character, . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . .. .. . . .. . . .. . . . '" .. 603 980-1028. J\fanners an Emigration of the Turks, or Turkmans,... .605 1038. They defeat the Gaznevides, and subdue Persia,.............. 507 1038-1152. Dynasty of the Selj uki.ans, ...... .. . . .. .. . " '". . . . . .. . . .. 507 1038-1063. Reign and Character of Togrul Beg,.................... 508 1055. He delivers the Caliph of Bagdad,. .... ... .. .. .. .. .... .... .... 509 His Investiture, .. " . ... . .. .. ... . ... . .... ... . ... . .... .... .... 510 1063. And Death, ........................................."...... 611 1050. The Turks invade the Roman Empire, ................. .. . .... 511 1063-1072. Reign of Alp Arslan,.............. .. . . .... ... . .. . . .... 512 1065-1068. Conquest of Armenia and Georgia, ..... ... ... .. . ... .... 512 1068-1071. The Emperor Romanus Diogenes, ... ... ... ... ... ... .... 513 1071. Defeat of the Romans,.... ... ... .... .... .... ... ... ...... .... 515 Captivity and Deliverance of the Emperor, .... . ..... . ... . .... 516 1072. Death of Alp Arslan, .......................................519 1072-1092. Reign and Prosperity of !tlalek 'Shah,.. . . .. . ... .. . . ... .. 520 1092. His . Death,................................................ 522 Division of the Selj ukian Empire, ........ ... . ... . .. . ... ... .. 623 1074-1084. Conquest of Asia Minor by the Turks,.... ...... .... .... 624 The Seljukian Kingdom of Roum, . ... ... .... .... ........ .... 626 638-1099. State and Pilgrimage of Jerusalem, .................... 528 969-1076. Under the Fatimite Caliphs,. ............ ...... ........ 530 1009. Sacrilege of I-Iakem,................................ '" . . . . . .. 632 1024. Increase of Pi1grimages, .... .... ... . ... . .. . ... .... .... ...... 533 1076-1096. Conquest of J crusalem by the Turks, .................. 534 CHAPTER LVIII. ORIGIS AND NUMBERS OF TIlE FIRST CRUSADE. - CHARACTERS OF THB LA.TIN PRINCES. - THEIR IARCJ{ TO CONSTANTINOPLE. - POLICY OP THE GREEK E)IPEROR ALEXIUS. - CONQUEST OF NICE, ANTIOCH, AND JERUBAt"F. f, BY THI FR,\XKS. - DELIVEUANCE OF TIlE HOLY VOf... V. b XIV CONTENTS. SEPULCHRE. - GODFREY OF BOUILLON, FIRST KING OF .JERUSALEM.- INSTITUTIONS OF THE FRENCH OR LATIN KINGDOM. A.. D. J'.AGJi: 1095-1099. The first Crusade,................. .... ...... ... . ... ... 637 Peter the Hermit, .......................................... 637 1096. Urban II. in the Council of Placentia,.... .............. ...... 639 541 544 546 550 551 652 654 556 I. Godfrey of Bouillon,...... .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 658 II. Hugh of Vermandois, Robert of Normandy, Robert of Flanders, Stephen of Chartres, &c.,.................... 659 III. Raymond of Tholouse, ... ...... .... .............. ....... 560 IV. Bohemond and Tancred, ................................ 561 Chi valry , . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . .. . . . . .. . . .. .. . . . . 661 1096, 1097. :March of the Princes to Constantinople,................ 564 Policy of the Emperor Alexius Comnenus, . ...... .. .... .. .... 567 He obtains the Homage of the Crusaders,...... ... . . . .. . . . . .. 569 572 572 Siege of Nice, .. . ... .. .... ... ... ... ... ... ... .. . ... ... ... .... 575 Battle of Dorylæum,.......... .. . ... .. .... .. . ... ...... .. . ... 577 ?tlarch through the Lesser Asia,. .. . ... .. . ... .. . ... .. . ... .. . .. 578 1097-1151. Baldwin founds the Principality of Edessa,............. 579 1097, 1098. Siege of Antioch,............ ...... ...... ........ ...... 580 1098. Victory of the Crusaders, .... ... . .. . ... ... ... .. . ... .... ..... 583 Their Famine and Distress at Antioch, .... ... ... . ........ .... 583 Legend of the Holy Lance, . . . ... .. . . .. .. . . .. . . . . . . . . .. . . .. .. 585 Celes tial 'Varriors,...... .. . . .. .. . . .. .. . . .. .. . . .. .. . . .. . . . . .. 587 The State of the Turks and Caliphs of Egypt,... . . . . . . . .. . . .. 588 1098, 1099. Delay of the Franks, ................ ... . .. . . . . . . .. . . .. 590 1099. Their March to Jerusalem, ... . .. . . .. . .... .... ... .... .. . ... .... 590 Siege and Conquest of Jerusalem, ................ ... ... .. ... 591 1099, 1100. Election and Reign of Godfrey of Bouillon, . . . . . . . . . . . .. 594 1099. Battle of .i\.scalon, .. . . .. . . . . . . . . .. . . .. .. . . . . . . .. .. . . .. . . . . .. 59!) 1099-1187. The Kingdom of Jerusalem,......... . .. ... .. . . ... . .... 696 ] 099-1369. Assise of Jerusalem,.... . . . . .. . . . . .. ...... . . . . .. . . . . .. 699 Court of Peers, ................ .. . . .. .. . ... .. . . .. . ... ... ... 601 602 603 603 604 1096. Council of Clermont, ....................................... Justice of the Crusades, .................................... Spiritual Motives and Indulgences,........ ... ... .. . ..... ... . Temporal and Carnal Motives,. . . . . .. . . . . . . . . .. .... . . . . . ". ... Influence of Example, .... .... ... ...... ... ... ... ... ...... ... Departure of the first Crusaders, ............................ Their Destruction in Hungary and Asia, .............. ....... The Chiefs of the first Crusade, ............................. 1097. Insolence 0 f the Franks,...... . . . . .. . . . . .. . . .. ... . .. .. .. . . . . Their Review and Numbers,.. . . . . . . . . . . ... .. . . .. .. . . . . . . . . . . Law of Judicial Con1bats, ... . .. . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . Court of Burgesses, ........ .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. .. . . .. . . . . . . . . Syrians, . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . .. .. . . .. . . . . .. .. . . . . . . . . .. . . .. Villains and Slaves, .................................. . . . . .. TBB HISTORY OF THE DECLINE AND FALL OF THE ROMAN EMPIRE. CHAPTER XLIX. [ "l."-{)DUCTION, WORSHIP, AND PERSECUTION OF mIAGES.- REVOLT OF ITALY AND ROME. - TEMPORAL DOl\UNION OP THE POPES. - CONQUEST OF ITALY BY THE FRANKS. - ES- TABLISHMENT O:F Il\IAGES. - CHARACTER AND CORONATION OF CHARLEl\IAGNE. - RESTORATION AND DECAY OF THE ROMAN El\IPIRE IN THE WEST. - INDEPENDENCE OF ITALY. - CONSTITUTION OF THE GERMANIC BODY. IN the connection of the church and state, I have considered the former as subservient only, and relative, to the latter; a salutary maxim, if in fact, as well as in narrative, it had ever been held sacred. The Oriental philosophy of the Gnostics, the dark abyss of predestination and grace, and the strange transformation of the Eucharist from the sign to the substance of Christ's body,l I have purposely abandoned to the curiosity of speculative divines. But I have revipwed, with diligence and pleasure, the objects of ecclesiastical history, by which 1 The learned Sclden has given the history of transubstantiation in a comprehensive and pithy sentence: u This opinion is only rhetorio turned into logic," (his'Vorks, vol. ill. p. 2073, in his Table-Talk. } VOL. Y. 1 2 THE DECLINE AND FALL tl1e decline and fan of the Roman empire were materiaUy affected, the propagJ.tion of Christianity, the constitution of the Catholic church, the ruin of Paganism, and the sects that arose from the mysterious controversies concerning the Trinity and incarnation. At the head of this class, we may justly rank the worship of images, so fiercely disputed in the eighth and ninth centuries; since a question of popular superstition pro- duced the revolt of Italy, the temporal power of the popeR, and the resto-ration of the Roman empire in the vVes. The primitive Christians were possessed with an unconquer. able repugnance to the use and abuse of images; and this aversion may be ascribed to their descent from the Jews, and their enn1ity to the Greeks. The l\1osaic law had severely proscribed aU representations of the Deity; and that precept was firmly established in the principles and practice of the chosen people. The wit of the Christian apologists was pointed against the foolish idolaters, who bowed before the workmanship of their own hands; the images of brass and marble, which, had they been endowed with sense and motion, should have started rather from the pedestal to adore the cre- ative powers of the artist. 2 Perhaps some recent and imper- fect convert of the Gnostic tribe might crown the statues of Christ and 81. Paul with the profane honors which they paid to those of Aristotle and Pythagoras; 3 but the public religion of the Catholics was uniformly simple and spiritual; and the first notice of the use of pictures is in the censure of the council of Illiberis, three hundred years after the Christian rem. Un- der tbe successors of Constantine, in the peace and luxury of the triumphant church, the more prudent bishops condescended to indulge a visible superstition, for the benefit of the multi. tude, and, after the ruin of Paganism, they were no longer restrained by the apprehension of an odious parallel. The first introduction of a symbolic worship was in the veneration of the cross, and of relics. The saints and Inartyrs, whose inter- 51 Nee intelligunt homines ineptissimi, quôd si sentire simulacra et moveri posscnt, adoratura hominem fuissent à quo sunt expolita. lDivin. Institut. 1. ii. c. 2.) Lactantius is the last, as well as the most èloqucnt, of the Latin apologists. Their raillery of idols attacks not only the object, but the form and matter. 3 See Irenæus, Epiphanius, and Augustin, (llasnage, Rist. deø Eglises Reformées, tom. iÏ. p. 1313.) This Gnostic practice has a sin. gular affinity with the private worship of Alexander Sevcrus, (Lan:. pridius, f. 29. Lardr.er, Heathe"l Testimonies, vol. ill. p. 34.) OF THE ROr.t:AN EMPIRE. 3 cession was implored, were seatcd on the right hand of God; but the gracious and often supernatural favors, which, in the popular belief, were showered round their ton1b, conveyed an unquestionable sanction of the devout pIlgrims, who visited, and touched, and kissed these lifeless renl::l.Ïns, the memorials of their merits and sufferings. 4 But a memorial, more inter- esting than the skull or the sandals of a departed worthy, is the faithful copy of his person and features, delineated by the arts of painting or sculpture. In every age, such copies, so congenial to human feelings, have been cherished by the zeal of private friendship, or public esteem: the images of the Roman emperors were adored with civil, and almost religious, honors; a reverence less ostentatious, but more sincere, was applied to the statues of sages and patriots; and these profane virtues, these splendid sins, disappeared in the presence of the holy men, who had died for their celestial and everlasting country. At first, the experiment was made with caution and scruple; and the venerable pictures were discreetly allowed to instruct the ignorant, to awaken the cold, and to gratify the prejudices of the heathen proselytes. By a slow though in- evitable progression, the honors of the original were transferred to the copy: the devout Christian prayed before the image of a saint; and the Pagan rites of genuflection, luminaries, and incense, again stole into the Catholic church. The scruples of reason, or piety, were silenced by the strong evidence of visions and miracles; and the pictures which speak, and move, and bleed, must be endowed with a divine energy, and may be considered as the proper objects of religious adoration. The most audacious pencil rnight tremble in the rash attempt of defining, by fOriTIS and colors, the infinite Spirit, the eter- nal Father, who pervades and sustains the uni erse.5 But the superstitious mind was more easily reconciled to paint and to worship the angels, and, above all, the Son of God, under the human shape, which, on earth, fhey have condescended to 4 See this History, yol. ii. p. 261; vol. ii. p. 43-1; yo1. iii. p. 158-163. · od yÙ!! -rò ÐEìoJ' ún lour i;n a(! XOJ' xed àï. 'ì'lfOJ' W)(!Cf'ttìç TlaL xu; ax ,;- LantJ! àTCHi! tt) lU" (jUTE i!J,Ow r.aL I ).()fç .d JI i'Tnn/JI!awJ! r.a; 7CnOÚ1!(X.(!XOII (Jt aiav TI Lcf1- - {fLUÇ JfEYJ'/.V;(i H. (Concili{lm Nicenum, ii. i Collèct Labb. tom. viii. p. 1025, edit. Venet.) 11 scroit peut-êtrc l-propos de ne point souffrir d'images dc la Trinité on dC la Divinité; les defen- Rcurs les plus zclés dcs imagcs ayant eondamné eelles-ci, ct Ie eoneilc de 'frelltc nc parlnnt que ùes images de Je<;u8 Chri t ct clC's Saints tDupin, Dibliot. Ecclés. tom. 'vi. p. 1[j, .) 4: THE DECLINE AND FALL assume The second person of the Trinity had been clothed with a real and nlortal body; but that body had ascended into heaven: and, had not some similitude been presented to the eyes of his disciples, the spiritual worship of Christ might have been obliterated by the visible relics and representations of the saints. A similar indulgence was requisite and propitious for the Virgin :l\Iary: the place of her burial was unknown; and the assumption of her soul and body into heaven was adopted by the credulity of the Greeks and Latins. The use, and even the worship, of images was firmly established before tho end of the sixth century: they were fondly cherished by the warm inlagination of the Greeks and. Asiatics: the Pantheon and Vatican were adorned with the emblems of a new super- stition; but this semblance of idolatry was more coldly enter- tained by the rude Barbarians and the Arian clergy of the "\Vest. The bolder forms of sculpture, in brass or marble, which peopled the temples of antiquity, were offensive to the fancy or conscience of the Christian Greeks: and a smooth surface of colors has ever been esteemed a more decent and harmless mode of imitation.6 The merit and effect of a copy depends on its resemblance with the orIginal; but the primitive Christians were ignorant of the genuine features of the Son of God, his mother, and his apostles: the statue of Christ at Paneas in Palestine 7 was more probably that of some temporal savior; the Gnostics and their profane monuments were reprobated; and the fancy of the Christian artists could onJy be guided by the clandes. CI This general history of images is drawn from the xxiid book of the Rist. def';i Eglises Héformées of Basnage, tom. ü. p. 1310-1337. He was a Protestant, but of a manly spirit; and on this head the Protestants are so notoriously in the right, that they can venture to be impartial. See the perplexity of poor }"l"Ìar Paói, Critica, tom. i. p. 42. ' 7 Mter removing some rubbish of miracle and inconsistency, it may be allowed, that as late as the year 300, Paneas in Palestine 1.yas deco- rated with a bronze statue, representing a grave personage wrapped in a cloak, with a grateful or suppliant female kneeling before him, and that an inscription - 'fw '(;)ni()l. 'fW EVEoyÍTrj- was perhal)s inscribed on the pedestal. By th'e ChrisÍ:.ians', this'group was foolishly explained of their founder and the poor woman whom he had cured of the bloody flux, (Euseb. vii. 18, Philostorg. vii. 3, &c.) 1\1. de J3eausobre more reasonably conjectures the philosopher Apollonius, or the em- peror Vespasian: in the latter supposition, the female is a city, a pro- vince, or perhaps the queen Bcrenic , (liibliothèqua Germaniquc, tom. xüi. p. l- .) , OF THE ROMAN EMPIRE. 5 tine ilnit:1tion of SOlne heathen model. In this distress, a bold and dexterous invention assured at once the likeLICss of the image and the innocence of the worship. A new super- structure of fable was raised on the popular basis of a Syrian legend, on the correspondence of Christ and Abgarus, so famous in the days of Ellsebius, so reluctantly deserted by our modern advocates. The bishop of Cæsarea 8 records the epistle,9 but he most strangely forgets the picture of Christ; 10 the perfect impression of his face on a linen, with which he gratified the faith of the royal stranger who had invoked his healing. power, and offered the strong city of Edessa to pro.. tect hiln against the malice of the Jews. The ignorance of the primitive church is explained by the- long imprisonrnent of the image in a niche of the wall, from whence, after an oblivion or" five hundred years, it was. l'eleased by some pru- ent bishop, and seasonably presented to the devotion of the times. Its first and mo t glorious exploit was the deliverance of the city from tþe arms of Chosroes Nushirvan; and it was soon revered as a pledge of the divine promise, that Edessa should never be taken by a foreign enemy. It is true, in- deed, that the text of Procopius ascribes the double deliver- ance of Edessa to the wealth and valor of her citizens, who purchased the absence and repelled the assaults of the Persian 8 Euseb. !-list. Ecclés. 1. i. c. 13. The learned Assemannus has brought up the collateral aid of three Syrians, St. Ephrem. Josua Stylites, and James bishop of Sarug; but I do not find any notice of ihe Syriac original or the archives of Edessa, (Bibliot. Orient. tom. i. p. 318, 420, 554:;) their vague belief is probably derived from the Greeks. 9 The cyidencc for these epistles is stated and rejected by the can- did Lardner, (Heathen Testimonies, vol. i. p. 297-309.) Among the herd of bigots who are forcibly driven from this convenient, but nn- enable, post, I am asl1amed, .with the Grabes, Caves, Tillemonts, &c., to discover 1\11'. Addison, an English gentleman, (his \V orks, vol. i. p. 528, Baskerville's erution;) but his superficial tract on the Christian religion owes its credit to his name, his style, and the interested applause of our clergy. 10 From the silence of James of Sarug, (Asseman. Bibliot. Orient. p. 28D, 318,) and the testimony of Evagrius, (Rist. Eccles. I. iv. c. 27.) I conclude that this fable ,vas invented between the years 521 and 5D4, most probably after the siege of Edessa in 54:0, (A.sseman. tom. i. p.416. Procopius, de Bell. Persico 1. ii.) It is the sword and buckler of Gregory 11., (in Epist. i. ad Leon. Isaur. Concil. tom. viii. p. 6.36, 657,) of John Damascenus, (Opera, tom. i. p. 281, edit. Lequien,) and of the second Nicene Council, (Actio v. p. 1030.) The most perfect edition may be found in Cedrenus, (Compend. p. 175-178.) . 6 TIrE DECLINE AND FALL monarch. lIe was ignorant, tIle profane historian, of the test mony which he is compelled to deliver in the ecclesiasti- cal page of Evagrius, that the Palladium "vas exposed on the rampart, and that the water which had been sprinkled on the l101y face, instead of quenching, added new fuel to the flames of the besieged. After this important service, the image of Edessa was preserved with respect and gratitude; and if tho Armenians rejec!ed the legend, the more credulous Greeks adored the sinlilitude, which was not the work of any mortal pencil, but the immediate creation of the divine original. The style and sentilllents of a Byzantine hyn1n will declare how far their worship was removed frOlll the grossest idola. try. "How can we with n10rtal eyes contemplate this image, whose celestial splendor the host of heaven presumes not to behold? fIE who dwells in heaven, condescends this day to visit us by his venerable image; HE who is seated on of the cherubim, visits us this day by a picture, which the Father has delineated with his immaculate hand, which he has forllled in an ineffable manner, and which we sanctify by adoring it with fear and love." Before the end of the sixth century, these images, made 'Without hands, (in Greek it is a single word,ll) were propagated in the camps and cities of the Eastern enlpire: 12 they were the objects of worship, and the instruments of miracles; and in the hour of danger or tumult, their venerable presence could revive the hope, re.. kindle the courage, or repress the fury, of the Roman legions. Of these pictures, the far greater part, the transcri ts of a human pencil, could only pretend to a secondary likeness and improper title: but there were some of higher descent, who derived their resemblance from an immediate contact 11 ) Axu!!onoirrroc:. See Ducange, in Gloss. Græc. et Lat. The subject is treated with equal learning and bigotry by the Jesuit Gret- ser, (Syntagma de lmaginibus non Ianû factis, ad ca1ccm Coclini de Officiis, p. 289-330,) the ass, or rather the fox, of lngold:;;tadt, (see the Scaligcrana;) with equal reason and wit by the Protestant Eeau- sobre, in the ironical controversy which he has spread through many volumes of the Bibliothèque Germanique, (tom. xviii. p. 1-60, x.x. p. 27-68, xxv. p. 1-36, xxvü. p. 85-118, xxviii. p. 1-33, xxxi. p.lll -H,8, xxxii. p. 75-107, xxxiv. p. 67-96.) 12 Theophylact Simocatta (1. ii. c. 3, p. 34, 1. iii. c. 1. p. 63'} coele- brates the .tJ f I'ÒQIXOJl Eì.'XCX(í W, 'Which he styles àXEI(!(lnoh(lf)JI; yet it was no more than a copy, since he adds &1 Xhvnu)t 'l"Ù fY-ElJlDV of C P,v- f'-(llOt (of Edessa) .&efJ(íXH f 01Jol n ã: Qr(rov. See Pagi, tom. ii. A. D. 6. No. 11. . OF TlIE R01\tAN Eh fIRE.. 7 with the original, endowed, for that purpose, with a miracu- lous and prolific virtue. The most ambitious aspired from a filial to a fraternal relation with. the image of Edessa; and such is the veronica of Rome, or Spain., or Jerusalem, which Christ in his a ony and bloody sweat applied to his face, and delivered to a holy rnatron. The fruitful precedent was speedily tr311sfcrl'ed to the Virgin l\lary., and the saints and Inartyrn. In the church of Diospolis., in Palestine, the rea.. hues of the :l\fother of God 13 were deeply inscribed in a Inar.. ble column; the East and 'Vest have been decorated by the pencil of St. Luke; and the Evangelist, who was perhaps a. physician, has been forced to exercise the occupütion of a. painter, so profane and odious in the cy'Cs of the prirnitive Christians. The Oiympian Jove, created by the muse of Honler and the chisel of Phidias., might inspire a philosophic Inind with lllomentary devotion; but these Catholic images WCl'e faintly and flatly delineated by monkish artists in the last degeneracy of taste and gcnius. 14 The worship of images had stolen into the church by in.. sensible degrees, and each petty step was pleasing to the superstitious mind, as productive of cOH1fort, and innocent of sin. But in the beginning of the eighth century, in the full magnitude of the ahuse, the r.o.ore tim{)rous Greeks were awakened by an apprehension, that under the mask of Chris.. tianity, they had restored the religion of their fathers: they heard, with grief and impaticl1C'e, the name of idolaters; the incessant charge of the Jews and Mahometans,]5 who derived from the Law and the Koran an immortal hatred to graven irnages and all relative worshil'. The servitude of the Jews l11ight curb their zeal, and depreciate their authority; hut the triumphant 1ussulmans, who reigned a.t Damascus., and 13 See, in the genuine or supposed works of John Damascenus, two passn.ges on the Virgin and St. Luke, which ha.ve not been noticed by Gretser, nor consequently by Beausobre, (Opera Joh. Damascen. tom. i. p. 618., 631.) J.& "Your scandalous figures stand quite out from the c.anvas: they Rre as bad as a group of statu.es !" It was thus that the ignorance and bigotry of a Greek priest applauded the pictures of Titian, which he hacl ordered, and refused to accept. 15 By Cedrenus, Zonaras, Glycas, and :Manasses, th.e origin of the Iconoclasts is imputed to the caliph Yezid and two Jews, who prom.. ised the empire to Leo; and the l'CproachU) of these hostile scctari(,8 ar turned into an absurd conspiracy for restoring the purity of tÞ4 Christian worship, (see Spanheim, IIist. Imag. c. 2.) s THE DECLINE AND FALL threatened ConstantinopJe, cast into the scale of reproach the accumu1ated weight of truth and victory. The cities of Syria P lestine, and Egypt had been fortified with the images of Christ, his mother, and his saints; and each city presumed on the hope or promise of miraculous defence. In a rapid con.. quest of ten years, the Arnbs subdued those cities and the e im:"\ges; and, in their opinion, the Lord of Hosts pronounced it decisive judgIoent between the adoration and contempt of 3hcse mute and inanimate idols.* For a while Edessa had Lraved the Persian assaults; but tbe cnosen city, the spouse ()[ Christ, was involved in the common ruin; and his divine }IJsemblance became the slave and trophy of tIle infidels. J\[;e1' a servitude of three hundred years, the Palladium was y idded to the devotion of Constantinople, for a ransom of twelve thousand pounds of silver, the redemption of two hun- dred 1\1ussulmans, and a perpetual truce for the territory of Edessa.1 6 In this season of distress and dismay, the eloquence of tbe monks was exercised in the defence of images; and theyattclnpted to prove that the sin and schism of the greatest part of the Orientals had forfeited the favor, and annihilated the virtue, of these precious symbols. But they were now opposed by the murmurs of many silTlple or rational Chris.. tians, WI10 appealed to the evidence of texts, of facts, and of 1be primitive times, and secretly desired the reformation of he church. As the worship of images had never been estab- èished bJ any genera} or positive law, its progress in the :.f:D:stern empire had been retarded, or accelerated, by the diffurences of men and manners, the local degrees of :refine- Jnent, and the personal characters of the bishops. The splendid devoti()n was fondly cherished by the levity of the f a pital, and the Inventive genius of the Byzantine clergy; while the rude and remote districts of Asia were strange:rs to this III See Elmacin, (lIist. Saracen. p. 267,)Abulpharaf,tÏus, (Dynast. p. ::!O! t) and Abulfcda, (Annal. :l\1os1cm. p. 264,) Dnd the criticisms of l)a. i, (tom. ill. A. D. 944.) The prudent Franciscan refuses to deter- miae whether the image of Edcssa now reposes at Rome or Genoa; }mt its repose is inglorious, and tills ancient object of worship is no longer famous or fashionable. 40' Yezid, ninth caliph of the race of the Ommiadæ, caused an the im- r.:gt's in Syria to be destroyed about the year 719; hence the orthodox re- j>roa.ched the sectarians with following the example of the Saracens and the Jews. Fragm. Mon. Johan. Jcrosylym. Script. Dyzant. vo]. xvi. p. 2:ri. Hist. des Répub. Ita!. par 1. Sismondi, vol. i. p. 126. - G OF HE ROMAN EMPIRE. !J innovation of sacred luxury. l\lany large congregations of Gnostics and Arians maintained, after their conversion, the simple worship which had preceded their separation; and the Armenians, the most warlike subjects of Rome, were not reconciled, in the twelfth century, to the sight of irnages.1 7 These various denominations of Inen affor-ded a fund of pre- judice and aversion, of small account in the viHages of Ana- tolia or Thrace, but which, in the fortune of a soldier, ;) vrelate, or a eunuch, lTIight be often connected with the pow- èrs of the church and state. Of such adventurers, the most forturate was the emperor Leo the Third,18 who, from the mountains of Isauria, ascendeu the throne of the East. I-Ie was ignOJ lnt of sacred and pro- fane letters; but his education, his 't nson, perhaps his inter- course with the Jews and Arabs, bad inspired the martial peasant with a hatred of images 1 and it was held to be the duty of a prince to impose on hÏ"; l1bjects the dictates of his own conscience. But in the out'.v.;! of an unsettled reign, dur- ing ten years of toil and dang" r, Leo submitted to the mean- ness of hypocrisy, bowed bcfc.}e the idols which he despIsed, and satisfied the Rom!).o V.)YHiff with the annual professIOns of his orthodoxy ar.d Z( J. In the reformati n of religion, his first steps we e '1yJr..rate and cautious: he assembled a great council of c:,f'r.tp ur5 and bishops, and enacted, WIth their consent, that p Ii t.ßf} llYJages should be removed fronl the sane- 17 ) ...1Q1- tUlO Ç 'tV:.:' Ai.a,uftl'orç f7Tl(í',Ç T(;)V (yí(J)}I I1ly.ónnv 1fcooy.t;njl1,ç ian,"fvp,,'jfU, (nic<:tas, 1. ii. p. 258.) The Anncnian churches are still cont :"lt Ri1- tlJ.e Cross, (Missions du Levant, tom. iii. p. 148;) but surely the superstitious Greek i:; unj list to the superstition of the Gern13TI. of the xiith century. l Our original, but not impartial, :monuments of the Iconoclasts must be drawn from the Acts of the Councils, tom. viii. and ix. Col- lect. Labbl\ edit. Yenet. and the historical writings of Theophancs, Nicephorus, l\Ianasses, Cedrenus, Zonaras, &c. Of the nìodern Catho- lics, 13aronius, Pagi, N atalis Alexa1r!.er, (Hist. Eccles. Seculul11 viii. and ix.,) and ßlaimbourg, (IIist. des Iconoclasts,) have treated the subject with learning, passion, and credulity. The Protestant labors of Frederick Spanheim (Historia Imaginum restituta.) and Jan.cs Bas- nage (lIist. des E lises ){é1'ormée:::, tom. ii. 1. x.xiii. p. 1339-1385) are cast into the Iconoclast scale. 'Vith this mutual aid, and opposite tendency, it is easy for 'Us to poise the balance with philosophic inclif- fcrence. - · Compare Schlosser, Geschichteder Bildcr-stormendcr Kaiser, Frank.- Curt-am-l\Iain, 1812; a book of IcsNlrch and impartiality. -M. 10 THE DECLINE AND FALL tuary and altar to a proper height in the -rhurches,,, bera they might be visible to the eyes, and inaccessible to the superstition, of the people. But it was impossible on eitlÆr side to check the rapid though adverse impulse of veneration and abhorrence: in their lofty position, the sacred images still edified their votaries, and reproached the tyrant. He was himself provoked by resistance and invective; and his own party accused him of an imperfect discharge of his duty, and urged for his inlÏtation the example of the Jewish king, who had broken without scruple the brazen serpent of the temple. By a second edict, he proscribed the existence as well as the use of religious pictures; the churches of Con. stantinople and the provinces were cleansed from idolatry; the images of Christ, the Virgin, and the saints, were demol.. ished, or a smooth surface of plaster was spread over the walls of the edifice. The sect of the Iconoclasts was sup" ported by the zeal and despotism of six emperors, and the East and \Vest were involved in a noisy conflict of one hundred and twenty years. It was the design of Leo the Isaurian to pronounce the condemnation of images as an article of faith, and by the authority of a general council: hut the convocation of such an assembly was reserved for his son Constantine; 13 and though it is stigmatized by triU111phant bigotry as a meeting of fools and atheists, their own partial and mutilated acts betray many symptoms of reason and piety. The debates and decrees of many provincial synods introduced the summons of the general council which met in the suburbs of Constantinople, and was composed of the respectable number of three hundred and thirty-eight bishops- of Europe and Anatolia; for the patriarchs of Antioch and Alexandria were the slaves of the caliph, and the Roman pontiff had withdrawn the churches of Italy and the "\tVest frOlTI the comlTIunion of the Greeks. This Byzantine synod assumed the rank and powers of the seven th general council ; yet even this title was a recognition of the six preceding 19 Some flowers of rhetoric arc l1J'oðov 7TcxnåJ 1 ouOJl r.ai ÙÐEOJ', and the bishops TOl-Ç IWTWÚ(Pfloou'. By Darnascenus it"'ïs s'tylcd ar.v )oç y'cel. ÙðEX- "lOç, (Opera, tom. i. p. 623.) Spanheim's Apology for the Synod of Constantinople (p. 171, &c.) is worked up with truth and ingenuity, from such materials as he could find in the Nicene Acts, (p. 1046, &c.) The witty John of Damascus converts ÌTrwr.vnovç into Ì7flOXÚ-rOVç; makes them XOlAwðot'Ì.or;ç, slaves Qf theÍ1" belly, &c. Opera, tom. . p. 206. (1 J:' TIlE ROl\IAN El\IPIRE. 11 assmublies, which had laboriously built the structure of the Catholic faith. After a serious deliberation of six months, the three hundred and thirty.eight bishops pronounced and sub. scribed a unanimous decree, that aU visible symbols of Christ, except in the Eucharist, were either blasphemous or heretical; that ilnage-worship was a corruption of Christianity and a renewal of Paganislu; that all such monuments of idolatry should be broken or erased; and that those who should refuse to deliver the objects of their private super. stition, were guilty of disobedience to the authority of the church llild of the emperor. In their loud and loyal acclama- tions, they celebrated the merits of theil" temporal redeemer, and to his zeal and justice they intrusted the execution of their spiritual censures. At Constantinople, as in the fanner councils, the will of the prince was the rule of episcopal faith; but on this occasion, I mn inclined to suspect that a large majority of the prelates sacrificed their secret conscience to the temptations of hope and fear. In the long night of super- stition, the Christians had wandered far away frOlu the sim- plicity of the gospel: nor was it easy for them to discern the clew, and tread back the 11laZeS, of the labyrinth. The wor- ship of images was inseparably blended, at least to a pious fancy, with the Cross, the Virgin, the Saints and their relics; the holy ground was involved in a cloud of 111iracles and visions; and the nerves of the rnind, curiosity and scepticism, were benumbed by the habits of obedience and belief. Con- stantine himself is accused of indulging a royal license to doubt, or deny, or deride the luysteries of the Catholics,20 but .. they were deeply inscribed in the public and private creed of his bishops; and the boldest Iconoclast rnight assault with a secret horror the monuments of popular devotion, which were t;onsccratcd to the honor of his celestial patrons. In the refornlation of the sixteenth century, freedom and knowledge had expanded all the faculties of luan: the thirst of innova- tion superseded the reverence of antiquity; and the vigor of Europe coulrl disdain those phantonls which terrified the sickly and servile weakness of the Greeks. o lIe is accused of proscribing the title of saint; styling the Yirrrin, :Mothcr of Cllrist; comparing her after her delivery to àn empty pu e i of Arianism, Nestorianism, &c. In his defence, Spanheim (c. iv. p. 207) is somewhat embarrassed between the interest of a Protcstant amI the duty of an orthodox. divine. 12 HE DECLINE AND FALL The scandal of an abstract heresy can be only proclaimed to the people by tbe blast of tbe ecclesiastical trumpet; bu1 fhe most ignorant can perceive, the most torpid must feel, the profanation and downfall of their visible deities. The first hostilities of Leo were directed against a lofty Christ on the vestibule, and above the gate, of the palace. A ladder had ucen planted for the assault, but it was furiously shaken by a crowd of zealots and women: they beheld, with pious trans- port, the ministers of sacri1ege tUlnbling from on high and flashed against the pavement; and the honors of the ancient rnartyrs were prostituted to these criminals, who justly suf- f0red for muròer and rebellion. 21 The execution of the ltu- perial edicts was resisted by frequent tumults in Constantinople and the provinces: the person of Leo was endangered, his oificers were massacred, and the popular enthusiasm was (fUelled by the strongest efl"011:s of the civil and military power. {)f the Archipelago, or Holy Sea, the numerous islands were :lilled with images and monks: their votaries a jured, without scruple, the enenlY of Christ, his mother, and the saints; they arnled a fleet of boats and galleys, displayed their consec ated banners, and boldly steered for the Imbor of Constantinople, to place on dw throne a new favorite of God and the people. 'rhey depended on the succor of a miracle: but their miracles 'were inefficient against the Greek fire; and, after the defeat and conflagration of their fleet, the naked islands were aban- doned to the clemency or justice of the conqueror. The son of Leo, in the first year of his reign, had undertaken an ex- pedition against the Saracens: during his absence, the capital, the palace, and the purple, were occupied. by his kinsman Artavasdes, tbe ambitious champio.n of the orthodox faith. The worship of images was trituTIphantly restored: the patri- arch renounced his dissimulation, or dissembled his sentiments; and the righteous claim of the usurper was acknowledged, both in the new, and in ancient, Rome. Constantine flew for refuge to his paternal mountains; but he descended at the head of the bold nd affectionate Isaurians; and his final victory con- founded the arms and predictions of the fanatics. I-lis long reign ,vas distracted with clamor, sedition, conspiracy, and 21 The holy confessor Theophanes approves the principle of their r6bellion, ..hí r.I1'OI lfJ'Ol ':Î.rp, (p. 339.) Gregory II. (in Epist. i. ad Imp. Leon. Concil. tom. viii. p. 661, 664) applauds the zeal of the By. santinc women who ki.lled thC' ImpeIial officer$. OF THE ROl\IAN El\IPIRE. 13 mutual hatred, and sanguinary revenge; the persecution of images was the motive, or pretence, of his adversaries; and, if they missed a temporal diadem, they were rewarded by the Greeks with the crown of martyrdom. In every act of open and clandestine treason, the ernperor felt the unforgiving en.. mity of the monks, the faithful slaves of the superstition to which they owed their riches and influence. They prayed, they preached, they absolved, they inflamed, they conspired; the solitude of Palestine poured forth a torrent of invective; and the pen of St. John Darnascenus, J the last of th.e Greek fathers, devoted the tyrant's heaJ, both in this world and the next.2 1 $ I am not at leisure to examine how far the Inonks provoked, nor how much they have exaggerated, their real al1d pretended sufferings, nor how nlany lost their !i\"es or limbs, their eyes or theil' beards, by the cruelty of the ell1- peror.t From the chastisenlCnt of individuals, he proceeded to the abolition of the order; and, as it was wealthy and use- less, his resentment might be stÜnulated by avarice, and jus- tified by patriotisnl. r-rhe formidable name and mission of the Dragon,24 his visitor-general, excited the terror and abhor- e John, or ){ansur, was a noble Christian of Damascus, who held a considerable office in the service of the calinh. His zeal in the cause of images expo.sed him to the resentmcnt a ld treachery of the Greek emperor; au(l on the suspicion of a treasonable correspondence, he was dcprived of his right hand, which was miraculously restored b} the Virgin. After this deliverancc, he re::;igned his office, distributed his wealth, and buried himself in the mona4ery of St. Sabas, between Jerusalem and the Dead Sea. The legend is famous; but his lcarned editor, father Lequien, has unluckily proved that St. John Damas- cenus was already n monk beforc thc Iconoclast dispute, (Opcra, tom. i. Vito St. Joan. Dama::;cen. p. 10-13, et X otas ad loc.) 2:J .After scnding Leo to the devil, he introduces his heir -7Ò Llu è.J1' ar roù yh"",Uli, ;wì. T1ìç XlO!lUÇ a1 í(Hì i':).'; U1'ú.u(J; iF. ('ì'7rí.( YHÚ.UH(J , (Opera, Dama:-;cen. t,)m. i. p. 62:).) If thc authenticity of this piece he suspicious, we are sure th.at in other works, no lon er c,-tant, Damasccnus be towecl on Con talltille the title.':; of }'Iuv J.llw..t , e, X (O- TOILLCX01', ,1.1 tl1tÍYI/H, (tom. i. p. : O(j.) :a In the narrative of this persecution from Theo )hanes and Cedre- IlUS, Spanhcim (p. 23,)-233) is happy to compare the Dl"ltCO of LCI) · The patriarch Anastasius, an Iconoclast unùer Leo, an image worsllip- pef under Artavasclcs, was scourged, led through the streets on an ass, with his face to the tail j and, reinvested in his dignity, became again the obse- quious minister of Constantine in his Iconoclastic persccutions. See Schlosser, p. 211. -1\1. t Compare Schlosser, p. 228-231. -1',1. VOT... v. 2 14 TIIE DEcr.J l\ E A:iD F .ALL rence of the black nation: the religious cOlnmunities were dissolved, the buildings were converted into nlagazines, or barracks; the lands, rnovables, and cattle were confiscated and our l110dcrn precedents will support the charge, that n1uch wanton 01' nlalicious havoc was exercised against the relics, and even the books, of the l11onasteries. vVith the habit and profession of monks, the public and private worship of image. was rigorously proscribed; and it should seel11, that a solemn abjuration of idolatry was exacted frOl11 the subjects, or at least 1'1'0111 th,c clergy, of the Eastern empire. 25 'fhe patient East abjured, with reluctance, her sacred images; they were fondly cherished, and vigorously defended, by the independent zeal of the Italians. In ecclesiastical rank and jurisdiction, the patriarch of Constantinople and the pope of Rome were nearly equal. But the Greek prelate was a dOlnestic slave under t e eye of his master, at whose nod he alternately passed fro111 the convent to the throne, and from the throne to the convent. A distant and dangerous station, al11idst the Ea rbarialls of the 'Vest, excited the spirit and freedOlll of the Latin bishops. Their popular election endeared t.hell1 to the Romans: the public and private indigence was relieved by their ample revenue; anù the weakness or neg- lect of the emperors compelled them to consult, both in peace and war, the temporal safety of the city. In the school of adversity the priest insensibly imbibed the virtues and the ambition of a prince; the same character was assumed, the same policy was adopted, by the Italian, the Greek, or the Syrian, who ascended the chair of St. Peter; and, after the loss of' her legions and provinces, the genius and fortune of the popes again ]'estored the supremacy of Rome. It is agreed, that in the eighth century, their donlinion was founded on rebellion, and that the rebellion was produced, and justified, by the heresy of the Iconoclasts; but the cond uct of the second and third Gregory, in this melTIorable contest, is vari- ousl y interpreted by the wishes of their friends and enemies. The Byzantine writers unanilllously declare, that, after a fruitless admonition, they pronounced the separation of the with the dragoons (Dracones) of Louis XIV.; find highly solaces him- self with this controversial pun. 2:; nQúyQap!w ì' !! i;flnÉ}l1þ ;WTÙ nÜ(Jav t llQxi.av -r1.v rnò n ç XI'{!OC atJTo'Ù, nÚ'JITa ÍJnoïQå1þat ;wl Òlo"!J'at 'TUV &tJ nì(fat '!i,v nQû(Jy.vJ'fjO(V TC;). (]tnÚò" Ely.úJ'lJJJ, (Damascen. Gp. tom. i. p. 625.) This oath and sub- f!cl'iption I do not remember to have seen in any D1cdern compilation OF THE ROMAN El\IPIRE. 15 East and 'Vest, and deprived the sacrilegious tyrant of the revenue and sovereignty of Italy. 'rheir excommunication is still more clearly expressed by the Greeks, who beheld the accomplishment of the papal triumphs; and as they are more strongly attached to their religion than to their country, they praise, instead of blaming, the zeal and orthodoxy of these apostolical men. 2ö The modern champions of Rome are eager to accept the praise and the precedent: this great and glorious example of the deposition of royal heretics is cele- brated by the cardinals Baronius and Bellarmine; 27 and if they aloe asked, why the same thunders were not hurled :tgainst the Neros and Julians of antiquity, they reply, that the weakness of the primitive church was the sole cause of her patient loyalty.28 On this occasion, the effects of love and hatred are the same; and the zealous Protestants, who seek to kindle the indignation, and to alarm the fears, of princes and n1agistrates, expatiate on the insolence and treason of the two Gregories against their lawful sovereign. 29 They are defended only by the moderate Catholics, for the most part, of the Gallican church,3o who respect the saint, without 26 ](ai T:,'JI r PWP. 1 1V t1VV nåCf!l' ITuJ.iq '(ljç ßCClTii.1! laç aJrov ladt1TJjCfE, says Theophanes, (Chronograph. p. 343.) :For this Gregory is styled by Cedrenus &V;I &1TO(JTÛÌ-lY.OÇ, (p. 450.) Zonaras specifies the thun- der, âl'atJ,: w'Cl CfvJ'oðlY.t?, (tom. ii. 1. xv. p. 10-1, 10.3.) It may be ob- serveù, that the Greeks are apt to confound the times and actions of two Gregories. 7 See Baronius, Annal. Eccles. A. D. 730, K o. 4, 5; dignum cx- emplum! Bellarmin. de ltomallo Pontifice, 1. v. c. 8: mulctavit eum ])arte imperii. Sigonius, de Regno ltaliæ, 1. iii. Opera, tom. ii. p. 16V. Yet such is the change of Italy, that Sigonius is corrected by the cdi" tor of 1ilan, Philipus Arg-elatus, a Bolognese, and subject of thc pope. 28 Quod si Chri:;tiani olim non deposuerunt N erOllem aut J uliullum. id fuit quia deerallt vires temporales Christianis, (honest Bellarmine, de Hom. Pont.!. v. c. 7.) Cardinal Perron aùds a distinction more honorable to the first Christians, but not more satisfactory to moclern princes - the treason of heretics and apostates, who break their oath, belie their coin, and renounce their allcO'iance to Christ and lús vicar, (I ) . 0 erronlana, p. 8V.) 29 Take, as a specimen, the cautious Basnagc (Hi st. d'Eg1i (', p. 1350, 1351) and thc vehement Spanheim, (lEst. lmaginum,) who, with a b unclred more, tread in the footsteps of thc ccnturia.tors of lagùe- burgh. 30 See Launoy, (Op ra, tom. v. pars ii. cpist. vii. 7, p. 456-474,) Na- ta1is Alexander, (Hist. Nov. Tcstamenti, 8CCU1. viii. dissert. i. p. 9 - 9?,) Pag , (Critica, tom. iii. p. 215, 216,) and Giannone, (Istoria Civile di Napoli, tom. i. p. 317-3 O,) a disciple of the UaUiC l school. lL 16 THE DECLINE AND FALL approving th() sin. These comn1on advocates of the Cl'own and the mitre circumscribe the truth of facts by the rule of equity, Scripture, and tradition, and appeal to the evidence of the Latins,31 and the lives 3 and epistles of the popes themselves. Two original epistles, from Gregory the Second to the em.. peror Leo, are still extant; 33 and if they cannot be praised as the 1110st perfect models of eloquence and logic, they exhibit the portrait, or at least the mask, of the founder of the papal monarchy. "During ten pure and fortunate years," says Gregory to the emperor, "we have tasted the annual comfort of your royal letters, subscribed in purple ink, with your {)wn hand, the sacr d pledges of your attachment to the orthodox creed of our fathers. How deplorable is the change! how tremendous the scandal ! You now accuse the Catholics {Of idolatry; and, by the accusation, you betray your own :impiety and ignorance. To this ignorance we are compelled to adapt the gL.ossness of our style and arguments: the first elen1ents of holy letters are sufficient for your confusion; and were you to enter a gramillar-school, and avow yourself the the fiéld of controvcrsy I always pity the moderate party, who stand on the opeu middle ground exposed to the fire of both sides. l They appeal to Paul 'Yarnefrid, or Diaconus, (de Gcstis Lango- bard. 1. vi. c. 49, p. 506, 507, in Script. !tal. Iuratori, tom. i. pars i.,) and the nominal Anastasius, (de Vito Pont. in :r.luratori, tom. iii. pars i. Gregorius II. p. 1,]4. Gregorius III. p. 158. Zacharias, p. 161. Stephallus III. p. 165. Paulu:,,:, p. 172. Stephanus IV. p. 174. Ha- driallus, p. 179. Leo III. p. 195. ) Yet I may l'cmark, that the true Anastasius (lEst. Eccles. p. 134, edit. Rcg.) and the Historia :r.liscclla, (1. xxi. p. 161, in tom. i. Script. Ital.,) both of the ixth ccntury,. trans- late and approve the Grcek text of Theophanes. 32 'Vith some minute difference. the most learncd critics, IJuca3 IIolstenius, Schelestrate, Ciampini, BianchiI1i, ::\luratori, (Prolegomena ad t0111. iii. pars i.,) are agreed that the Libel' J>olltificalis was com- posed and continueù by thc apostolicallibrarians and notaries of the viüth and ixth centurics; and that the last and smallest part is thc work of Anastasius, 'whose name it bears. Thc style is barbarous, thc narrative partial, the details arc trifling - yet it mu t be read a a curious and authcutic record of the time . The epistlcs of the popcs mc dispersed in the volumes of Councils, 33 The two epistlcs of Gregory II. have bcen preservccl in the Acts of the Nicene Council, (tom. viii. p. 651-674.) Thcy arc without a date, whi<.,h is variously fixeù, by Baronius in the year 726, by lura- tori (Annali d' Italia, tom, vi. p. 120) in 729, and by pagi in 730. Such is the force of prejudice, that some jJapists have praised the good Rcnse and modcration of these lctters. OF TIlE ROl\IAN El\IPIRE. 17 enen1Y of our worship, the sirnple and pious children would be provoked to cast their horn-books at your head." After this decent salutation, the pope attempts the usual distinction between the idols of antiquity and the Christian images. The former were the fanciful representations of phantOtTIs or dæmons, at a time when the true God had not n1anifested his person in any visible likeness. The latter are the genuine forms of Christ, his mother, and his saints, who had approved, by a crowd of miracles, the innocence and merit of this rela- tive worship. He must indeed have trusted to the ignorance of Leo, since he could assert the perpetual use of images, frOtTI the apostolic age, and their venerable presence in the six synods of the Catholic church. A more specious argu- l11ent is drawn from present possession and recent practice. the harmony of the Christian world supersedes the delnand of a general council; and Gregory frankly confesses, that such assemblies can only be useful under the reign of an orthodox prince. To the impudent and inhuman Leo, more guilty than a heretic, he recommends peace, silence, and Ïrn- plicit obedience to his spiritual guides of Constantinople and Rome. The limits of civil and ecclesiastical powers are defined by the pontiff. To the former he appropriates the body; to the latter, the soul: the sword of justice is in the hands of the magistrate: the more formidable weapon of ex- communication is intrusted to the clergy; and in the exercise of their divine commission a zealous son will not spare his offending father: the successor of St. Peter may lawfully chastise the kings of the earth. " You assault us, 0 tyrant! with a carnal and military hand: unarmed and naked we can only implore the Christ, the prince of the heavenly host, that he will send unto you a devil, for the destruction of your body and the salvation of your soul. You declare, with fool- ish arrogance, I will despatch my orders to Rome: I will break in pieces the in1age of S1. Peter; and Gregory, like his predecessor l\fartin, shall be transported in chains, and in exile, to the foot of the Imperial throne. 'V ould to God that I might be peflnitted to tread in the footsteps of the holy :Martin! but may the fate of Constans serve as a warning to the persecutors of the church! After his just condemnation by the bishops of Sicilv, the tyrant was cut oW, in the fulness of his sins, by a dOlnestic ser ant: the saint is still adored by the nations of Scythia, among whom he ended his banishlTleI t and his life. But it is our duty to live for the edification and '>* - 18 TIlE DECLINE .A ND FALL support of the faithful people; nor are we reduced to ris};- our safety on the event of a combat. Incapable as you are of defending your Roman subjects, the n1aritime situation of the city may perhaps expose it t.o your depredation; but we can rClnove to the distance of four-and-twcnty stadia,34 to the first fortress of the Lombards, and then - you lTIay pursue the winds. Are you ignorant that the popes are the bond of union, the Inediators of peace, between the East and \\T e3t ? "fhe eyes of the nations are fixed on our humility; and they revere, as a God upon earth, the apostle St. Peter, whose image you threaten to destroy.35 'I'he remote and interior kingdoms of the \Vest present their homage to Christ and his vicegerent; and we now prepare to visit one of their n10st powerful Inonarchs, who desires to receive fron1 our hands the sacrament of baptism. 36 The Barbarians have submitted to the yoke of the gospel, while you alone are deaf to the voice of the Shepherd. These pious Barbarians are kindled into rage: they thirst to avenge the perseclltion of the East. Abandon your rash and fatal enterprise; reflect, tremble, and l'f'pent. If you persist, \ve are innocent of the blood that will be spilt in the contest; lnay it fall on your own head! " The first assault of Leo against the Ïlnages of Constantino- ple had been witnessed by a crowd of strangers frOll1 Italy and the \Vest, who related with grief and indignation the sacrilege of the emperor. But on the reception of his pro- scriptive edict, they trembled for their domestic deities: the images of Christ and the Virgin, of the angels, martyrs, and 3. Err-oat T;a(1aQa 2-36, edition in 12mo.,) and the judicious reflections of Polybius, (tom. i. 1. iv. p. 466, cdit. Granoy.) 24 THE DECLINE AND FALL war; if the Christians, who visited the holy threshold, would have sheathed their swords in the presence of the apostle and his successor. But this mystic circle could have been traced only by the wand of a legislator and a sage: this pacific sys- tem was incompatible with the zeal and ambition of the popes.: the Romans were not addicted, like the inhabitants of Elis, to the innocent and placid labors of agriculture; and the Barba rians of Italy, though softened by the climate, were far below the Grecian states in the institutions of public and private life A memorable example of repentance and piety was exhibited by Liutprand, king of the LOlDbards. In arms, at the gate of the Vatican, the conqueror listened to the voice of Gregory the 8econd,48 withdrew his troops, resigned his conquests, respectfully visited the church of 81. Peter, and after per- forming his devotions, offered his sword and dagger, his cuirass and mantle, his silver cross, and his crown of gold, on the tOlllb of the apostle. But this religious fervor was the iHusion, perhaps the artifice, of the moment; the sense of interest is strong and lasting; the love of arms and rapine was congenial to the Lombards; and both the prince and people were irresistibly tempted by the disorders of Italy, the nakedness of Rome, and the unwarlike profession of her new chief. On the first edicts of the eInperor, they declared themselves the champions of the holy images: Liutprand invaded the province of Romagna, which had already as- sumed that distinctive appeHation;' the Catholics of the Exarchate yielded without reluctance to his civil and military power; and a foreign enemy was introduced for the first time into the impregnable fortress of Ravenna. That city and fortress were speedily recovered by the active diligence and maritime forces of the Venetians; and those faithful sub- jects obeyed the exhortation of Gregory hirnself, in separating the personal guilt of Leo from the general cause of the Ro. lDan cmpirc. 49 The Greeks were less mindful of the service, 48 The speech of Gregory to the l..ombard is finely composed by Si- gonius, (de Regno ltaliæ, 1. iii. Opera, tom. ii. p. 173,) who imitates the license and the spirit of Sallust or Livy. 49 The Venetian historians, John Sagorllin u , (Chron. Y cnet. p. 13,) and the doge Andrew Dalldolo, (Scriptores ReI'. Ital. tom. xii. p. 135,) have presen"ed. this epistle of Gregory. The loss and l'ecovery of H.a- venna are mentioned by Paulus Diaconus, (de Gest. Langobard.l. vi. c. 4:9, 54, in Script. Hal. tom. i. pars i. p. 506, 508;) but our chronolo- gists, Pagi, Iuratori, &c., cannot ascertain the date 01' circumstances. OF THE ROl\IAN E:\IPIRE. 25 than the Lombards of the injury: the two nations, hostile in their faith, were reconciled in a dangerous and unnatural alliance: the king and the exarch marched to the conquest of Spoleto and Rome: the storm evaporated without effect, but the policy of Liutprand alarmed Italy with a vexatious altérnative of hostility and truce. His successor Astolphus declared himself the equal enemy of the ell1perOr and the pope: Ravenna was subdued by force or treachery,50 and this final conquest extinguished the series of the exarchs, who had reigned with a subordinate power since the time of Jus- tinian and the ruin of the Gothic kingdom. Rome was sum- 1110ned to acknowledge the victorious Lombard as her lawful sovereign; the annual tribute of a piece of gold was fixed as the ranS0111 of each citizen, and the sword of destruction was unsheathed to exact the penalty of her disobedience. The Romans hesitated; they entreated; they complained; and the threatening Barbarians were checked by arms and negotiations, tiU the popes had engaged the friendship of an ally and avenger beyond the Alps.51 In h s distress, the first =I' Gregory had implored the aid of the ,hero of the age, of Charles Martel, who governed the French n10narchy with the humble title of mayor or duke; and who, by his signal victory over the Saracens, had saved his country, and perhaps Europe, fr0111 the l\fahometan yoke. The ambassadors of the pope were received by Charles with decent re'lerence; but the greatness of his occupations, and the shortness of his life, prevented his interference in the affairs of Italy, except by a fricndly and ineffectual Inedia tion. His son Pepin, the heir of his power and virtues, as umed the office of champion of the Roman church; and the zeal of the French prince appears to have been prompted 50 The option will dC'pend on the various readings of the 1\1S8. of Anastasius - deccperat, or decerpserat, (Script. Ita1. tom. iü. pars i. p. 167.) 51 The Codex Carolinus i a collecti0n of the epistles of the popeR to Charles lartelJ (whom they sty Ie Subrc!Julus.) Pepin, and Charle- magnc, as far as the year 791, whcn it was formed by the last of these princes. Hi::; original and authentic 1\18. (Bibliothecæ Cubicularis) is now in the Imperial library of Vienna, and has been published by l..ambecius and .Muratori, (Script. Uerum Ital. tom. iii. pars ü. p. 76, c.) · Greg ry I. had been dead above a centu-y; read Gregory III. - II. VOL. V. 3 26 THE DECLINE AND FALL by the love of glory and religion. But the danger was on the banks of the Tyber, the succor on those of the Seine; and our sympathy is cold to the relation of distant n1Ïsery. An1idst . the tears of the city, Stephen the Third embraced the gen- CIOUS res-olution of visiting in person the courts of Lombardy and France, to deprecate the injustice of his enemy, or to excite the pity and indignation of his friend. After soothing the public ùespair by litanies and orations, he undertook t11is laborious jot1l'l1ey with the al11bassadors of the French fli!on- arch and the Greek emperor. The king of the Lombards was inexorable; but his threats could not silence the C0111- plaints, nor retard the speed, of fhe Roman pontiff, who trav- ersed the Pennine Alps, repos.ed in the abbey of 81. l\Iaurice, and hastened to grasp th right hand of his p:rotector ; a hand which was never lifted in vain, either in war or friendship. Stephen \\las entertained as the visible successor of the apos- tle; at the next assembly, the field of l\Iarch or of l\Iay, his injuries were exposed to a devout and warlike nation, and he repassed the Alps, not as a suppliant, but as a conqueror, at the head of a French army, which was led by the king in person. The Lombards, after a weak resistance, obtained an ignominious peace, and swore to restore the possessions, and to respect the sanctity, of the Roman church. But no sooner was Astolphus delivered frorn the presence of the French anTIS, than he forgot his promise and resented his disgrace. Rome was again encompa sed by his arms; and Stephen, apprehensive of fatiguing the zeal of his Transalpine allies, enforced his c.omplaint and request by an eloquent letter in the name and person of St. Peter hilllselfJ,2 rfhe apo tlc assures his adopted sons, the king, the clergy, and the nobles of France, that, dead in the flesh, he is still alive in the spirit; that they now hear, and Inust obey, the voice of the founder and guardian of the Roman church; that the Virgin, the angels, the saints, and the 111a1'tyrs, and all the host of heaven, unanimously urge the request, and will cOl}fess the ob1igation ; that riches, victory, and paradise, will crown their pious enter- prise, and that eternal damnation ,,,,ill be the penalty of their 62 See this most extraordinary lcttcr in. the Codcx Carolinu , epist. iii. p. 92. The cHcmica of thc popcs have charged them with fraud and blasphemy i yet they surely meant to persuade rather than de- ceive. This introduction of the dead, or of immortals, was familiar tø the ancient orators, thou.gh it is executed on this occasion in tho rude ,fashion of the age. OF THE ROl\IA El\IPIRE. 7 neglect, if they suffer his tOl11b, his ten1ple, and his people, to fall into the hands of the perfiàious Lombards. The second expedition of Pepin was not less rapid and fortunate than the first: St. Peter was satisfied, Rome was again saved, and Astol a phus was taught the lessons of justice and sincerity by the scourge of a foreign master. After this double chastisement, the Lombards languished about twenty years in a state of languor and decay. But their 111inds were not yet hU111bled to their condition; and instead of afiècting the pacific yirtues of the feeble, they peevishly harassed the Romans with a repetition of claims, evasions, and inroads, which they under- took \vithout reflection anJ terminated vv"Ïthout glory. On either side, their expiring lnonarchy was pressed by the zeal and pl'UdCllCe of Pope Adrian the First, the gcnius, the for- tune, and greatness of Charlemagne, the son of Pepin; these heroes of the church and state were united in public and do- mestic friendship, and while they trampled on the prostrate, they varnished their proceedings with the fairest colors of equity and moderation.5 3 The passes of the ,A.lps, and the walls of Pavia, were the only defence of the Lon1bards; the former were :s-ürpriseq, the latter were invested, by the son oÎ Pepin; and after a blockade of two years,* Desiderius the last of their native princes, surrenùered his sceptre and his capital. Under the dorninion of a foreign king, but in the pos::;ession of their national Jaws, the Lombarùs became the brethren, rath r than the subjects, of the Franks; who derivect their blood, and manners, and language, f1'0111 the same Ger- Inanic origin. 54 The m tual obligations of the popes and the Car[ovingian family fonn the important link of ancient and Inodern, of civil 3 Except in the c1iyorce of the daughter of Desiderius, whom Char- lemagne repudiateù sine aliquo crimille. l)ope Stephen IV. had mOf:t furiously opposed the alliance of a noble Frank - cum pertid.l, horridei, nec dicendÙ, fætentissima natione Longobardorum - to ,vhom he imputes the first stain of lepro:5)", (Cod. Carolin. epi:5t. 4.j, p. 178, 179.) .Another reason against the marriacie was the existence of a fir;:;t wife, (l\luratori, Annali d' !talia, tom. vi. p. 232, 233, 236, 237.) l nt C.harlemagne indulged him elf in the freedom of polygamy or concu- tan age. i).1 ee the ...\.nnali d' Italia of lIIuratori, tüm. vi., ancl the three first Di. sertations of his AJltiquitatcs Italiæ }'Iedii ...TIvi, tom.. i. Of fifteen months. James, Life of Ch:ulf'lllagn(', p. 1ST. ,- I. 2 TIlE DECLINr. AND FALL and ecclesiastical, history. In the conquest of Italy, the chan1pions of the Roman church obtained a favorable occa- sion, a specIOus title, the wishes of the people, the prayers ani intrigues of the clergy. But the Iuost essential gifts of the popes to tho Carlovingian race were the dignities of king of Fra.nce,55 and of patrician of Ron1c. 1. Under the sacer- àotallTIOnarchy of St. Peter, the nations began to resume the practice of seeking, on the banks of the Tyber, their kings, their la\ys, and the oracles of their fate. The Franks were perplexed between the llaInC and substance of their govern- ment. All the powers of royalty were exercised by Pepin, Inayar of the palac:e; and nothing, except the regal title, was wanting to his alnbition. His enen1.Íes were crushed by his valor; his friends were n1ultiplied by his libcrality ; his father had been the savior of Christendoll1; and the claiuls of per- sonal rnerit were repeated and ennobled in a descent of four generations. 'rhe HalnC and Ï1nage of royalty was stiU pre- served in the last descendant of Clovis, the feeble Childeric; but his obsolete right could only be used as an in trument of sf'dition: the nation was desirous of restoring the sÏ1nplicity of the constitution; and Pepin, a subject and a prince, was ambitious to ascertain hi'3 own rank anJ the fortune of his f unily. The nlayor and the nobles were bound, by an oath of fidelity, to the royal phantOln: the blood of Clovis was pure and sacred iIi their eyes; and their cornmon mnùas5a- ùors addressed the Roman pontiff, to dispel their scruples, or to abs01 \'e thei r prOlnise. The interest of Pope Za.chary, the successor of the two Gregories, prompted hiln to decide, and to decide in their favor: he pronounced that the nation might lawfully unite in the sarne person the title and authority of king; and that the unfortunate Childeric, a victim of the public safety, should be degraded, shaved, and confined in a n1cnastery fOl. the remainder of his days. An [1ns\\"cr so agreeable to their wishes ,vas accepted by the Franks as tÌ1e ûpinion of a castIist, the sentence of a judge, or the oracle 65 BesiJcs the common historians, three French critics, L unoy, (Opera, tom. Y. pars ii. 1. vii. epi t. Ð, p. 477-487,) Pagi, t Critic,"" A.. D. 7.31, Ko. 1-6, A. D. 78'2, o. 1-10,) and Xntalis Alexfiuder, fIIist. Novi Testamenti, di::;sertat. ii. p. Ðß-I01,) have trcmtLd thiJ subject of the deposition of ChiMeric 'with learning a:ad attention, but 9.yith a stranO' bias to save the independence of the crown. Yet they nre hal"Cl m'c sed by the texts "hich they produce of Eginhard. The. oph:me...;, "and the old annals, Laur ::;llf\, cn c:'\J }'\lldcn cc;:., Ijoi Ü).Jp..ni. 0[<' THE ROi\I.AN El\IPIRE. 29 , of a prophet: the l\lerovingian race disappeared frorH the earth; and Pepin \vas exalted on a buckler by the suflhtgo of a free people, accustomed to obey his laws, and to l11arch under his standard. His coronation was twice perforrned, with the sanction of tho popes, by their rnost faithful servant St. Doniface, the apostle of Gerrnany, and by the grateful hands of Stephen the Third, who, in the monastery of St. Denys, placed the diadem on the head of hiS' benefactor. The royal unction of the kings of Israel was dexterously applied: 5û the successor of 81. Pctcr assnrncd the character of a di inc ambassador: a German chieftain was transformed into the Lord's anointed; and this Jewish rite hus been diffused and 111aintained by the superstition and vanity of 1110dern Europe. The Franks were absolved from their ancient oath; but a dire anathema was thundered against then1 and their posterity, if they should dare to renew the same freedom of choice, or to elect a king, except in the holy and n1eritorious race of the Carlovingian princes. \Vithout apprehending the future dan- gel', these princcs gloried in their present security: the secre- tary of Char elllagne aflifll1s, that the Frcnch sceptre was transferred by the authority of the popes; 57 and in their boldest enterprises, they insist, with confidence, on this signal and successful act of temporal jurisdiction. II. In the change of manners and language the patricians of Rome 58 were far removed from the senate of Romu]us, or the pa]ace of Constantine, from the free noL]es of the repub.. lic, or the fictitious parents of the emperor. After the recov- ó6 Not absolutely for the first time. On a less conspicuous theatre, it had been used, in the vith and viith centuries, by the provincial bishops of Britain and Spain. The royal unction of Constantinople wag borrowed from the Latins in the last age of the empire. Constan- tine Ianasses mentions that of Charlemagne as a foreign, J e"\vish, in.. comprehensihle ceremony. See t;elclcnls Titles of Honor, in his "\V orks, vol. iii. part i. p. 234-2H). 57 See ] inhard, ill Vitâ Caroli lagni, e. i. p. Ð, &c., e. iii. p. 24. Childeric was deposed - jussl1, the Carlovingians w-ere establbhed- auctoritate, Pontiticis Homani. Launay, &e., pretend that these stmng words are su ('eptihle of a very soft interpretation. ]3e it so; yet E3inhanl under toocl the world, the court, and the Latin langua1:;e. ious, (Sigonius, de Regno Italiæ, 1. iv. Opera, tom. ii. p. 2G7 -270.) It=, authelltieity, or at least its integrity, are much que-;tiollcd, (Pa;;i, A. D. 8'f7, No.7, &c. )Iuratori, Annali, torn. yi. p. 432, &c. Dis :ertat. Chorographica, p. 33, 34 j) but I sce no reasonablc objection to these princes so Ü'ccly dispo:iillg of ,,'hat was not their own. . (j(ì Charlcmagne solicitell and obtained from the proprietor, Hadrian 1., the mosaics of the palace of naY nlla, for the dccoration of Aix-la- l:hap('lle, (Cod. Carolin. epist. 67, p. 2 3.) 67 '1'11(' popes oftcn complain of thc u..;urpations of Lcn of Ravcnna, (Codc'\( Carolin. cpist. 51, 52, 53, p. 100-205.) :-\i corpus St. An- drea' fratris germani 8t. Petri hie humas;;;et, ncquaquam nos Romani pontificcs sic subjugassent, (Agnelln", Lib('r l)ontificaJi." in Scrirtor 1i Hermn Ital. t01l1. ii. pars i. p. 107.) 31 THE DECLINE AND FALL have produced or concealed a various coIlection of falsc or genuine, of corrupt or suspicious, acts, as they tended to pro. lllote the interest of the Roman church. Before the end. of the eighth century, some apostolical scribe, perhaps the noto- rious ) idore, con1posed the decretals, and the donation of ConstantinE', the two 111agic pillars of the spiritual and tempo- ral 1110narchy of the popes. This memorable donation was introduced to the world by an epistle of Adrian the First, who exhorts Charlemagne to ilnitate the liberality, and revive the name, of the great Constantine.ß8 According to the legend, the first of the Christian emperors was healed of the leprosy, and rurified in the waters of baptism, by 81. Silvester, the Homan bishop; and never was physician more gloriously recompensed. I-lis royal proselyte wi1hdrew from the seat and patrimony of St. Peter; declared his resolution üf fOllnd- . ing a new capital in the East; and Tcsigned to the popes the free and perpetual sovereignty of R01TIe, Ita1X' and the proy- inces of the \Yest.6 9 This fiction was productive of the lTIO t beneficial eflècts. The Greek princes were convicted of the guilt of usu rpation; and the revolt of Gregory was the dailll of his lawful inheritance. The popes were delivered frorn their debt of gratitude; and 11)e nonlinal gifts of the Carlo- vingians were no Hwre than the just and irrevocable resti- tution of a scanty portion of the ecclesiastical state. The sovereignty of Rome no longer depended on the choice of a fickle people; and the successors of St. Peter and Constan- tine were investf'd with the purple and prerogatives of t c Cæsars. So deep was the ignorance and credulity of the tUlles, that the most absurd of fables was received, with equal reverence, in Greece and in France, and is still enrolled 68 ] iissimo ConstaI'l.tino magno, per ejus largitatcm S. n. Eccle ia f'lcvata ct cxaltata Cðt. ct potestatcm in his Hcspcriæ partibus lfl.rgiri dignatus cst. . . . Quia ecce nov'1 Constantinus hi:; temporibus. &c., (Codex Carolin. cpist. 49, in t0111.. iii. part. ii. p. 19,3.) Pa i (Critica, A. D. 3 4, K o. 16) ascribes them to an impostor of the viiith century, who bOlTO"\YCd the name of St. Isidore: his humble title of Pcccator wa:; ignomntly, but aptly, turncÜ into ..llacatoJ"; his merchandise was in- deed profitable, and a few sheets of paper were sold for much wealth and power. G:! :Fabl"icius (:Bibliot. Græc. tom. "Vi. p. 4-7) has enumeratcd the seyeral editions of this Act, in Greek aud Latin. The copy whieh Laul'cntius Valia recites anÜ refutes, appears to be taken either from tbe spurious Acts of St. Silvester or ii'om Gratian's Decree, to which. M.ccording to him and othcl's, it has be-ell suneptition ly ta.cked. OF THE ROMAN E:\IPIRE. 35 among the decrees of the carron law. tO The enlperors, and the Romans, were incapable of discelning a forgery, that subverted tneir rights and freedOlTI; and the only opposition proceeded from a. Sabine monastery, which, in the beginning of the twclfth century, djsputed the truth and valiJity of the donation of Constantin.e. 71 In the revival of letters and lib. erty, this fictitious deed was transpiercèd by the pen of Lau- rentius Valla., the pen of a.n eloquent critic and a Roman patriot. 72 His contemporaries üf the fifteenth century were astonished at his sacrilegious boldness; yet such is the silent aild irresistible pl. ogress of reason, that., before the end of the next age, the fable was rejected by the contempt of histori- ans 73 and poets.,74 and the tacit or rnodest censure of the 70 In the year 1059, it was belicvcd (was it belieyccl?) by Pope Leo L"X.. Cardinal Peter Damianus, &c. luratori places (Annali d' Italia. tom. ix. p. 23, 24) the fictitiQUS dOIlations of Lewis the Pious, the Otho & , de Bonatione COl1sta.ntilli. See a Disse;rtatioll of N atalis Alexander., secu.lum iy. diss. 2,3, p. 33ii-350. 71 See a large account of the controversy (A. D. 1105) which arose from a private lawsuit, in the Cluollicon Fa.rsense., (Script. Rerum ltalicarum, tom. ii. pars i p. 637, &c.,) a copious extract ITom the archivcs of that Bcncdictine abbey. They were formerly accessible to curious foreigners, (Le Blanc ancl Iabillon,) and would have enriched the first volume of the Historia )!onastica Italiæ of Quirini. But they arc now imprisoned ()Iu.ratori, SCl'iptorcs R. 1. tom. ii. pars ii. p. 269) by tIle timid policy of the court of Rome; and the future car- llinal yielc1ecl to the voice of authority and the whispers of ambition, (Quirin Comment. pars ii. p. 123-136.) 72 I have read in the collection of Schard.ius (de Potesta.tc Imperiali Ecclesiastica., p. 734-180) this animatcd discourse, which was com- posed by the Ruthor, A. D. 14400, six years after the fl.ight of Pop(' Eugcnius IV. It is a most vehcmcnt party pamphlet: Yalia justifies and animates the rcvolt of the Romans and would even approve the use of a dagger against their sacerdotal tyrant. Such a critic might expect the persccution of the clcq y; yet he nade his peace, and is huried in the Lateran, (Rayle, Dicti.onnaire Critiqu.e, Y ALLA; V ossius, de lIistoricis Latinis, p. 580.) ;3 See Gaicciardini, a sen-ant of the popes, in that long and valua- LIe digrcs ion, which has reo..:ulllcd its place in the last cdit.ion, cor- rcctly published from the autho["s 1\18. and printed in four volumes ill q um:to, under the name of }'riburgo, 171,), (Istoria d' Italia, tom. i. p. 85-395. ) 74 The Paladin Astolpho found it in the moon, among the things that were lost upon earth, (Urlando x....urioso, xxxiv. 80.) Di vari fiore ad un grand monte passa, Ch' chbe glà. hUfllIO ndorp, or pU7.;r.a fortf' : Que8to era il dono (se però rlir lecf') ,"-'he Co ti\nti",-, at buon BHvestrn fec.e. Yet tills incomparable poem hM been approycd by a bull of Leo X. 3-3 'THE DECL tNE AND F .ALL advocates of the Ronlan church. 75 The popes themselves have indulged a smile at the credulity of the vulgar; 76 but a false and obsolete title still sanctifies their reign; and, by the :mme fortune which has attended the decretals and the Sibyl- 1ine oracles, the edifice has subsisted after the foundations have been undermined. \Vhile the popes established in Italy their freedom and dominion, the images, the first cause of their revolt, were )'estored in the Eastern empire. 77 Under the reign of Con- stantine the Fifth, the union of civil and ecclesiastical power had o,rerthrown the tree, without extirpating the Toot, of fjuperstition. The idols (for such they were now held) were ;ecretly cherished by the order and the sex most prone to devotion; and the fond alliance of the monks and females obtained a final victory over the reason and authority of man. Leo the Fourth maintained with less rigor the religion of his father and grandfather; but his wife, the fair "and ambitious [rene, had imbibed the zeal of the Athenians, the heirs of 1he Idolatry, rather than the philosophy, of the ir ancestors. During the life of her husband, these sentiments were in- flamed by danger and dissimulatimr, and she could only labor to protect and promote some favorite lDonks whom she drew from their caverns, and seated on the nletropolitan thrones of the East. But as soon as she reigned in her own name and that of her son, Irene more seriously undertook 75 See Baroniu;;;, A. D. 324, No. 117-123, A. D. 1191, No. 51, &c. The cardinal wishes to suppose that Rome was offered by Con- stantine, and refused by SilYester. The act of donation he considers, strangely ('nough, as a forgcry of the Greeks. . 76 13aronius n'en . 118-178,) and Dupin, (Bibiiot. Ecdé . tom. vi. p. 136 -15.1;) for the Prqtestants, by Spanhcim, (Hist. Imag. p. 30.j-ß !),) J3asnage, (Rist. de l'Egiise, tom. i. p. 556--572, tom. ii. p. 1362-138.5,) and .Mo heim, (Institut. lIist. Eccles. secul. viii. ct ix.) The Protes- tants, except Mosheim, are soured with controvcr y; but the Catho- lics, except Dupin, are inflamed by the fury and superstition of the monks; and even Le Beau, (lIist. du TIas Empire,) Jj. gentleman and a scholar. is illf cted by the odious contagion. OF THE ROl\lAN El\1PIRE. : 7 the ruin of the Iconoclasts; and the first step of her future persecution was a general edict for liberty of conscience. In the restoration of the Inonks, a thousand images were ex- posed to the public veneration; a thousand legellùs were invented of their suftèrings and lTliraclcs. By the opportuni- ties of death or removal, the episcopal seats ,vere judiciously filled; the most eager competitors for earthly or cele tial favor anticipated and flattered the judgment of their sov- ereign; and the promotion of her secretary Tarasius gave Irene the patriarch of Constantinople, and the cmnmand of the Oriental church. But the decrees of a general council could only be repealed by a similar assembly: 78 the Icono- clasts whom s!1e convened were bold in possession, and aver e to debate; and the feeble voice of the bishops was reëchoed by the Inore fonnidable clalnor of the soldie)' and people of Constantinople. The delay and intrigues 'of a year, the sep- aration of the disaffected troops, and the choice of Nice for a second orthodox synod, renloved these obstacles; and the episcopal conscience was again, after the Greek fashion, in the hands of the prince. No more than eighteen days were allowed for the consummation of this important work: the Iconoclasts appeared, not as j"udges, but as crilninals or penitents: the scene was decorated by the legates of Pope Ad f"Ïan and the Eastern patriarchs,79 the decrees were framed by the president Taracius, and ratified by the acclanlations and subscriptions of three hnndred and fifty bishops. They unanimously pronounced, that the worship of images is agreeable to Scripture and reason, to the fathers and councils of the church: but they hesitate whetber that worship be relative or direct; whether the Godhead, and the figure of Christ, be entitled to the same Inoue of adoration. Of this second Nicene council the acts are still extant; a curious monument of superstition anu ignorance, of fabehood is See the Acts, in Greek ancl I :ltin, of the second Council of Nice, with a number of rclatiye pieces, in the viiith volumc of the CounciL", p. G 1:)-1fìOO. A faithful version, with some critical notes, would pro- voke, in diffcrent readers, a !:;igh or a smile. i9 The popc's legates were casual messengers, two priests without Rny speÜal commi:-;sion, and who were di avowed on their returll. ome vagabond monks were per:madcd by the Catholics to rcpresent the Oriental- patl"iurchs. Thi::; curious anccdote is revealeù by Theo- clore Studite3, (epist. i. 38, in Sirmond. Opp. tom. y. p. 1319,) one of the warmcst Ic,onoclasts of the age. VOL. V. 4 38 THE DECLIKE AKD FALL and foUy. I shall only .notice the judgment. of the bishop9 on the comparative merit of inlagc-worship and nlorality .l\. lllonk had concluded a truce with the dæmon of fornica- tion, on condition of interrupting his daily prayers to a pictun? that hung in his cell. His scruples prornpted him to consult the abbot. "Rather than abstain from adoring Christ and his 1\lother in their holy images, it would be better for you," replied the casuist, "to enter every brothel, and visit every prostitute, in the city." 80 For the honor of orthodoxy, at least the orthodoxy of the Roman church, it is sOlnewhat unfortu- nate, that the two princes who convened the two councils of Nice are both stained with the blood of their sons. The second of these assemblies ,vas approved and rigorously exe- cuted by the despotislll of Irene, and she refused her adver- saries the toleration which at first she had granted to her friends. During the five succeeding reigns, a period of thirty-eight years, the contest was maintained, with unabated rage and various success, between the worshippers anù the breakers of the images; but I anl not inclined to pursue with minute diligence the repetition of the same events. Niceph- orus allowed a general liberty of speech and practice; and the only virtue of his reign is accused by the monks as the cause of his temporal and eternal perdition. Superstition and weakness formed the character of l\1ichael the First, but the saints and images were incapable of supporting their votary on the throne. In the purple, Leo the Fifth asserted the nanle and religion of an Armenian; and the idols, with their seditious adherents, were condemned to a econd exile. 'rheir applause would have sanctified the murder of an in1- pious tyrant, but his assassin and successor, the Fccond l\1ichuel, was tainted frOlll his birth with the Phrygian here- sies: he attempted to nlediate between the contending parties; and the intractable spirit of the Catholics insensibly cast him illto the opposite scale. Ills 1110deration was guarded by timidity; but his son Theophilus, alike ignorant of fear aud pity, was the last and IllOSt cruel of the Iconoclasts. ThQ- enthusiaslll of the times ran strongly against thenl; and the 8J lpf{llQH å GOI ,.d, p.LiuÚínEIl' h -r nûÃ.H ndT!i nOQ1'EÍfl1' Er'C Ó 1';/ EIGlì. !;ç, }ì ï,'a ':c!?d,G!1 -rò nQooXl J'flV -rÒ1 J XÚ! LO l' .'/( V P.(.tL ...9ÚH') b.O"';I' }(()líT1Ò)' ,UHlx -r ç iMLiÇ at'-roù "":7f!'J ÈI' Eì'P.IH1. These visits cm.lld not b innoccnt, sin('c the dttí,.WI1' nl} I'l:lLiÇ (the d;:emoll of fornicatiol; I inoÀ.EUEì òË Lit:rÒJl . . . . iJ. ,lia uJ wç ì.l fXElIO w:c C;' O(f(Jð tl (( &c. Actl-, iv. p: ÐOI, 13 ctio Y. p. 1031. . · ... OF THE ROl\IAN El\IPIRE. 39 emperors who stemmed the torrent were exasperated and punished by th( public hatred. A ftel the death of Theophi- Ius, the final victory of the ilnages was achieved by a seconù female, his widow Theodora, whom he left the guardian of the emDire. 1-Ier n1easures were bold and decisive. The fiction f a tardy repentance absolved the fan1e and the soul of her deceased husband; the sentence of the Iconoclast patri- arch was cOlnmuted fro111 the loss of his eyes to a whipping of two hundred lashes: the bishops trembled, the monks shouted, and the festival of orthodoxy preserves the annual ll1emory of the triumph of the images. A single question yet re- mained, whether they are endowed with any proper and in- herent sanctity; it was agitated by the Greeks of the eleventh century; 81 and as this opinion has the strongest reCOln- mendation of absurdity, I an1 surprised that it was not more explicitly decided in the affirmative. In the 'Vest, Pope Adrian the First accepter! and announced the decrees of the Nicene assembly, which is now revered by the Catholics as' the seventh in rank of the general councils. Rome and Italy were docile to the VOIce df their father; but the greatest part of the Latin Christians were fa.r behind in the race of supers.tition. The churches of France, Germany, England, and Spain, steered a middle course between the adoration and the destruction of images, which they adlnitted into their teIYlples, not as objects of worship, but as lively and useful men10rials of faith and history. An angry book of contro- versy was composed and published in the name of Charle- magne : 82 under his authority a synod of three hunùrcd bishops was assembled at Frankfort: ti:J they blamed the fury of the Iconoclasts, bnt th y pronounced a 11101'e severe cen- 81 See an account of this contrOyerRY in the Alexius of Anna Com- nena, (1. Y. p. l D,) and l\Ioshcim, (Institut. lIist. Eccles. p. 371,372.) 82 The Libri Carolini, (Spanheim, p. 4-!3-5 a,) composed in: the palnce or winter quarters of Char1ema ne, at ".. orm , A. D. 790, and ,.:ent by Engebert to Pope Hadrian I., who answered them by a gralldis et vcrbosa epistola, (Concil. tom. viii. p. IJ53.) The Carolines pro- pose 120 objections against the Kicene synod, amI such words as these arc the flmvcr:;:; of their rhetoric - Dementiam . . . . priscæ Gcntilitatis obsoletum errorem . . . . argmllcnta in::5ani sima et absurdis:-;ima . . . . ùcrisione dignas nænias, &c., &c. 83 The assemblies of Charlenwgne were political, as well as ccc1e:,i- ll'3tical; and the three hundred memb('r: , (N at. Alexander, scc. viii. p 53,) who sat and voted at :Frankfort, lllu t include not only the bi:;hol}S, but the abbot:.;, and c\'cn the rrincipallarmcll. l10 TIlE DECLINE AND FALL sure against the superstition of the Greeks, and the decrees of their pretended council, which ,vas long despised by the Barbarians of the '''est. 84 Among thetn the worship of im- ages advanced with a silent and insensible progress; but a large atonement is nmde for their hesitation and delay, by the gross idolatry of the ages which precede the reformation, and of the countries, both in Europe and A.u1erica, which are still Ìmn1ersed in the gloOll1 of superstition. It was after the Nïcene synod, and under the reign of the pious Irene, that the popes consummated the separation of Rome and Italy, by the translation of the empire to the less orthoJox Charlemagne. They were compelled to choose be- tween the rival nations: religion was not the sole n10tive of their c"hoice; and while they dissembled the failings of their friends, they beheld, with reluctance and suspicion, the Cath- olic virtues of their foes. The difièrence of language and l11annel'S had perpetuated the enn1ity of the two capitals; and they were alienated from each other by the hostile opposition of seventv veal's. In that schism the Romans had tasted of freedom, ;nd the popes of sovereignty: their submission would ha,re exposed them to the revenge of a jealous tyrant; and the revolution of Italy had betrayed the impotence, as well as the tyranny, of the Byzantine court. The Greek emperors had restored the images, but they had not restored the Cala- brian estates 85 and the lllyrian diocese,86 which the Icono. 8-1 Qui supra sanctissima patres nostri (episcopi et sacerdotes) omni- 'modis servitium et adoration em imagillum renuentes contempserunt, atqne conselltient s condemllaverunt, (Com'il. tom. ix. p. 101, Canon. ii. }'ranckfurd.) A polemic must be hard-hearted indee l, who docs not pity the efforts of Barouius, Pagi, Alexander, ?\laimbourg, &c., to elude this llulucky sentence. 8á Theophanes (p. 343) specifics those of Sicily and Calabria, which yielded an anuual rent of three talents and a half of gold. (perhaps 7000l. sterling.) Liutprand more pompou ly enumerates the patri- monies of the Homan eh urch in Greece, J udæa, Per::5Ïa, :Mesopotamia, Babylonia, Egypt, and Libya, which were detained by the illjustice of the Greek emperor, (Legat. ad Nicephorum, in Script. lterum Italicarum, tom. ii. pars i. p. 481.) 80 The great diocese of the Eastern Illyricum, with Apnlia, Cala- bria, and Sicily, (Thom.a sin, Discipline de l'Eglisc, tom. i. p. 14.3:) by the confession of the Greeks, the patriarch of Constantino}Jle haJ detached from Home the metropolitans of Thessalonica, Athens, Corinth, Kicopolis, anù Patne, (Lue. Holsten. Geograph. Sacra) p. 22;) ancl hi.;; spirit'.ull conquests extended to Naples and Amalphi, (Giannone, Istoria Civile di apoli, tom. i. p. fj 17-J24, ragi) A. D. '30, No. 11.) OF THE ROl\IAN El\lPIRE. 41 clasts had torn away from the successors of St. Petcr; and Pope Adrian threatens them with a sentence of excomnluni- cation unless they speedily abjure this practical heresy.87 The Greeks were now orthodox; but their religion might be tainted by the breath of the reigning monarch: the l-<"'ranks were now contu111acious; but a discerning eye might discern their approaching convcrsion, from the use, to the adoration, of images. The name of Charlemagne was stained by the polemic acrimony of his scribes; but the conqueror hill1sclf conformed, with the temper of a statesman, to the various practice of France and Italy. In his four pilgrimages or visits to the Vatican, he embraced the popes in thc cummu- nion of friendship and picty; knelt bcfore the tomb, and con- sequently before the in1age, of the apostlc; and joined, without scruple, in all the prayers and processions of the Romc..:.n liturgy. \V ould prudence or gratitude allow thc pon- tiffs to renounce thmr bcncfactor? Had they a right to alienate his gift of the Exarchate? I-Iad they power to abol- ish his government of Rome? The title of patrician was below the merit and greatness of Charlell1agne; and it was only by reviving the \Vestern empire that thcy could pay their obligations or secure their establishrnent. By this decisive lTIeaSUre they would finally eradicate the claims of the Greeks; frOlTI the debasement of a provincial town, the majesty of Rome would be restorcd: the Latin Christians would be united, under a SUprC111C head, in thcir ancient nletropolis; and the conquerors of thc \Vest wonlJ receive their crown frOlTI the successors of St. Peter. The Ron1an church would acquire a zealous anù respectable advocate; and, under the shadow of the Carlovingian power, the bishop might exercise, with honor anJ safcty, the government of the city.8 8 87 In hoc ætenditur, quia cx uno capitulo ab errore rcver:;is, in aliis duohus, in eadem (was it the same?) permaneant crrore . . . . de diocessi S. It. E. seu de patrimolliis iterum increpantes commo- nemus, ut si ea restituere noluerit heretieul1l cum pro hujnsmodi errore pcrscvcrantirì. flecl'rncmu , (Epist. Hadrian. Papæ ad Carolulll :\Ia cr - llum, ill COllcil. tom. viii. p. 1.598 ;) to which he a(lds :l 1"ea;;on, mo t dirpctly oppo ite to hi connuct, that he prefcrrcd the salvation uf souls and rule of faith to the goods of this trau::!itory world. bt! Fontanini con idcrs the emperors as no more than the advocate of the church, (advocatus et defensor S. R. E. Sec Duc<.luge, Glo s. Lat. tom. i. p. 297.) IIi antagolli:,t :\Iuratori reduces the popes to be no more than the cxarchs of the emperor. In the more equitable yicw of iosh{'im, (Institut. lEst. Eccles. p. 26-1, 2G .) they held ltOlnQ 4* 42 THE DECLINE AND FALl. Defore the ruin of PaganisH1 in ROl1le, the competition fÖr a wealthy bishopric had often been productive of tUll1ult and bloodshed. The people was less numerous, but the times Vlere l110re savage, the prize 1110re il11portant, and the chair of St. Peter was fiercely disputed hy the leading ecclesiastics who aspired to the rank of sovereign. The reign of Adrian the First 89 surpasses the Ineasure of past or succeeding ages; 90 the walls of Ronle, the sacred patrimony, the ruin of the Lon1bards, and the friendship of Charlemagne, were the trophies of his faIl1C: h secretly edified the throne of his successors, antI displayed in a narrow space the virtues of a great prince. I-lis 111emory was revered; but in the next elec- tion, a priest of the Lateran, Leo the Third, was preferred to the nephew and the favorite of Adrian, whom he had promoted to the first dignities of the church. Their acquiescence or repentance disguised, above four years, the blackest intention of revenge, till the day of a procession, when a furious band of conspirators dispersed the unarmed multitude, and assaulted with blows and wounds the sacred person of the pope. But thC'ir enterprise on his life or liberty was disappointed, per- haps by their own confusion aud remorse. Leo was left for dead on the ground: on his revival from the swoon, the effect of his loss of blood, he recovered his speech and sight; and this natural event ,vas Ílnproved to the Iniraculous restoration of his eyes and tongue, of vvhich he had been deprived, twice deprived, by the knife of the assassins. 91 FrOlll his prison he under the empire as the most honorable species of fieÎ or benefice- premuntur nocte caligillos ì. ! 89 His merits and hopes are summed up in an epitaph of thirty- eight-verses, of whieh Charlemagne declares himself the author, (Con- eil. tom. viii. p. 520.) P,) t patrern lacrymans Carolus hæc carmina scrip;::i. Tn mihi dul. is amor, te mojo plango pater. . . Nomina jungo f'il1lul titlll;s, rJ.lrissimf', lIostra Adrianus, Carolus, re:\. ego, tuque pa.ter. 'The poetry might be supplied by Aleuin; but the tears, the most gll)fious tribute, can only belong to Charlemagne. 9U Everv new pope is admonished - "Sancte Pater, nCÞ',.. videbis annos }")etri," twenty-five years. On the whole series the average is about eight years - a short hope for an ambitious cardinal. 91 The assurance of Anastasius (tom. iii. pars i. p. 197, 198) is sup. ported b)r the credulity of some French annalists; but Bginhard, and othpf writers of the same age, are more natural and sincere. "Dnus Ei oculus paullulum est læsus," says John the deacon of Kaples, (Vit. Episcop. :Kapol. ill Scriptores ::\Iuratori, tom. i. pars ii. p. 312.) Thea- (lj;" THE ROl\IAN El\JPIRE. 43 escaped to the Vatican: the duke of Spoleto hastened to his rescue, CharJemagne sympathized in his injury, and in his arnp of Paderborn in \Vestphalia accepted, or solicited, a visit fron1 the Roman pontifl Leo repassed the Alps with a onln1ission of counts and bishops, the guards of his safety and the judges of his innocence; and it was not \vithout re- luctance, that the conqueror of the Saxons delayed till the ensuing year the personal discharge of this pious office. In his fourth ancllast pilgrimage, he was received at Rome with the due h0110rs of king llnd patrician: Leo was pern1Í.tted to purge hi1l1self by oath of the crilnes imputed to his charp:e: his enemies were silenced, and the sacrilegious attempt against his life was punished by the mild and insufficient penalty of 3xile. On the festival of Christmas, tho last year of the eighth century, Charlelnagne appeared in the church of St. Peter; and, to gratify tho vanity of Rome, he had exchanged the simple drcss of his country for the habit of a patrician. 92 A.f- tel' the cclebration of the holy mysteries, Leo suddenly placed a precious crown on his head,!J3 and the dome resounded with the acclamations of the people," Long life and victory to Charles, the most pious Augustus, crowned by God the great and pacific elnperor of the Romans! " '"fhe head and body of Charlemagne were consecrated by the royal unction: after the example of the Cæsars, he Vias saluted or adored by the pontiff: his coronation oath represcnts a promise to maintain the faith and privileges of the church; and the first-fruits were paid in his rich offerings to the shrine of the apostle. In his familiar conversation, the empcror protested his igno- rance of the intentions of Leo, \vhich he would have cEsap- pointed by his absence on that n1cll1Qrabie day. But the <101phus, a contemporary bi::;hop of Orleans, obseryes with prudence, (1. iii. carm. 3,) Rcddita Bunt? mirnm o,.t: mirum ('st allff'rre nequis:>c. F,,,t talllen in duLio, hillc mircr an illito m"gi:i. 92 Twice, at the req nest of Hadrian and Leo, he appeared at Romo -longà tunieà et chlamyde amietus, et ealcemnentis quoque Homano more formatis. Eginhanl (C'. xxiii. p. 100-113) describes, like Sue- tonins, the simplicity of his dress, so popular in the nation, that when Charles the B..ùll returned to I.'rance in a foreign habit, the patriotic dogs harked at the apostate, (Gaillard, Vie de Charlemagne, tom. iv. p. 100.) 93 See Anastasius (p. 100) ancl Egillhard, (c. xxviii. p. 12 t-128.) The unction is mentioned by Thcophanes, (p. 399,) the oath by Sigo nius, (from the ûrdo Romanus,) and the Pope's adoration, more anti- quorum principum, hy the .\.nuales Bertiniani, (Script. l\lurator. tom. ü. pars ii. p. JOJ,) 1-1 THE DECLINE A D FALL . Qreparations of the ceremony nlust have disclosed the secret, and the journey of Charlemagne reveals his }{l1owledge and f:xpectation: he had acknQwledged that the Imperial title was the object of his ambition, and a Roman synod had pro- nounced, that it was the only adequate re\vard of his nlerit .:md services. 94 The appellation of great has been often bestowf'd, and "ometimes deserved; but CHARLEl\IAGNE is the only prince in whose favor the title has been indissolubly blended with the name. That naHle, with the addition of saint, is inserted in the Homan calendar; and the saint, by a rare felicity, is crowned with the praises of the historians Ð lld philosophers of an enlightened agc. 9 .3 His real merit is douLtless enhanced by the barbarisll1 of the nation and the times frOln which he emerged: but the apparent magnitude of an object is likewise enlarged by an unequal cornparison; and the ruins of Palmyra derive a casu3.1 splen(lor from the nakedness of the surround- ing desert. 'Vithont injustice to his fame, I nlay discern SOlDe blemishes in the sanctity and greatness of the restorer of the 'Vestern empire. Of his Inora1 virtues, chastity is not t.he lTIOst conspicuous: 96 but the public happiness could not be n'!aterial1y injured by his nine wives or concubines, tIle various indulgence of meaner or more transient amours, the nlultitude of his bastards whom he bestowed on the church, and the long celibacy and licentious manners of his daugh- 91 This great event of the translation or restoration of the empire is related and discussed by K atalis Alexander, (secnl. ix. dissert. i. p. :)90-39j,) Pa:{i, (tom. iii. p. 418,) luratori, (Anllali d' Italia, tom. vi, p. 339-:.352,) Sigonins, (de Regno Italiæ, 1. i v. Opp. tom. ii. p. 247- 2.31,) Spanheim, lcle fictì. Tr::mslatione Imperii,) Giannone, (tom. i. 13, 395-10.3,) St. Iarc, (Abrégé Chronologique, tom. i. p. 4:38-.150,) Gaillard, (IIist. de Charlemagne, tom. ii. p. 386-44:G.) Almost all these moderns haye Rome religious or national bias. 95 By l\Iably, (Observations sur l'Histoire de France,) Voltaire, (Ilistoire Genérale,) Ho bertson, (History of Charles V.,) and )lontes- <-Inieu, (Esprit des Loix, 1. xxxi. c. 18.) In the year 1782, 1\1. Gail- lard published his Histoire de Charlemagne, (in 4 vol:;. in 12mo.,) which I have freely and profitably used. The author is a man of sense and humanity; anù his wOl'1\:. is labored" ith industry and ele- aanee. llut I have likewise examined the oriJinal monuments of the ;eigns of :Pepin ami Charlemagne, in the 5th volume of the Historians of :France. 96 The vision of "\Veltin, composed by a monk, cleypn years after the death of Charlemagne, shows him in purgatory, with a vulture, · who is perpetually gnawing the guilty member, while the rest of his bodv, the emblem of his ,iituc , is sound and perfect, (see Gaillard. ;- -360.) OF THE ROMAN E:\lPIRB. 45 ters,97 Wh0111 the father was suspected of loving with too fond a passion.* I shall be scarcely penl1itted to accuse the ambition of a conqueror; but in a day of equal retribution.- the sons of his brother Carloman, the l\lerovingian princes of Aquitain, and the four thousand five hundred Saxons whc were beheaded on the same spot, would have something to allege against the justice aud hunlanity oÏ Charlemagne. His treatment of the vanquished Saxons us was an abuse of the right of conquest; his laws were not less sanguinary than his arms, and in the discussion of his motives, whatever is subtracted frOlfi bigotry 111ust be imputed to temper. The sedentary reader is amazed by his incessant activity of mind and body; and his subjects and enemies were.not less aston- ished at his sudden presence, at the mOll1ent when they bclieved hirn at the most distant extremity of the ernpire; neither peace nor war, nor SUnlmel' nor winter, were a season of repose; and our fancy cannot easily reconcile the annals of his reign with the geography of his expeditions.t But this 97 The marriage of Eginhard with Imma, daughter of Charlemagne. IS, in my opinion, sufficiently refuted by the pmbum and sllspicio that !Sullied these fair damsels, without excepting his own wife, (c. xix. p. 98-100, cum Notis Sclunincke.) The husband must have been too strong for the historian. ilS Bcsides the massacres and transmigrations, the pain of death was }1ronounced against the following crimes: 1. The refusal of baptÎf'lln. . The false pretence of baptism. 3. A relapse to idolatry. 4. The :murder of a priest or bishop. 5. Human sacrifices. 6. Eating meat in Lent. nut every crime might be expiated by baptism or pcnance, (Gail- lard, tom. ii. p. 2'11-24: 7 ;) and the Christian Saxons became the friends and equals of the }'ranks, (Struv. Corpus lIist. Germanicæ, p. 133.) . Tl,is charge of incest, as ßlr. Hallam justly observes, " seems to have m."iginated in a misinterpreted passage of Eginhard." Hallam's :Middle Ages, vol. i. p. 16. -M. t M. Guizot (Cours d'Histoire l\Iodcrnc, p. 270, 273) has compiled the fonowing st..l.tement of Charlem?gne'8 military campaigns:- 1. Against the Aquitanialls. 18. " the Saxons. 5. " the Lombarcls. 7. " the Arabs in Spain. 1. " the Thuringians. 4. " the AYars. 2. " the Breton . 1. " the Bavarians. 4. " the Slaves beyond the El\tc. õ. " the Sa.racens "in Italy. 3. " the Danes. 2. " the Greeks. :se total. - :.1. 46 THE DECLINE AND FALL activity was a national, rather than a personal, virtue; tho vagrant life of a Frank was spent in the chase, in pilgrilnafTe, in military adventures; and the journèys of Charlema 1e were distinguished only by a 1110re numerous train and a more important purpose. I-lis military renown 111Ust be tried by the- scrutiny of his troops, his enemies, and his actions. Alex- under conquered with the arms of Philip, but the two heroes who preceded Charlemagne bequeathed hirn their n::lme, their examples, and the companions of thcir victories. At the head of his veteran and superior armies, he oppressed the s3.vage or degenerate nations, who \vere incapable of con- fedel'ating for their C0111mOn safety: nor did he ever f'ncounter an equal antagonist in nmnbers, in discipline, 01 in, arms. The sciencp. of war has becn lost and revived with the art of peace; but his carnpalgns arc not 1\mstratcd oy any SIegf:; vI' battle of singular difficulty and success; and he might behold, with envy, the Saracen trophies of his grandfather. After the Spanish expedition, his rear-guard was defeated in the Pyrenæall mountains; and the soldiers, whose situation was irretrievable, and whose valor was useless, nl1ght accuse, with their last breath, the want of skill or caution of their genera1. 99 I touch with reverence the laws of Charlemagne, so highly applauded by a respectable judge. They compose not a systeln, but a series, of occasional and Ininute edicts, for the correction of abuses, thc reformation of manners, the economy of his farms, the care of his poultry, and even the sale of his eggs. He wished to nnprove the laws and the character of the Franks; and his attempts, however feeble and inlperfect, are deserving of praise: the inveterate evils of the times were suspended or mollified by his government; 100 but in his institutions I can seldom discover the general vie\vs and the im- lTlOrtal spirit of a legislator, who survives himself for the benefit 99 In this action the famous Ruthnc1, Rolando, Orlando, ,vas slain- cum comrluribus aliis. See the truth in Eginhard. (c. 9, p. la-5S,} and the fable in an ingenious Supplement of l\L Gaillard, (tom iii. p. 474.) The Spaniards arc too proud of a yictory, 'which history ascriLeö to the Gascons, * and romance to the Saracens. 100 Yet Schmidt, from the best authorities, represents the interior disorùers and ol>l'rcasiol1 of hi reign, (IIist. des .Allemal1clB, tom. ii. 1'. 46-4a.) · In fact, it was !l- sudden onset of the Gascong, assisted by the Basque rnoulltaincel s, and possibly a few N a, an-ese. -111. . 9 / OF THE RO:\lA E;\IPIRE. 47 of posterity. T'he union and stability of his empire depended on the life of a single man: he imitated tho dangerous prac- tice of dividing hi kingdoms among his sons; and after his numerous diets, the whole constitution was left to fluctuate between the disorders of anarchy and despotism. IIis esteCln for the piety and knowledge of the clergy ten1pted him to intrust that aspiring order with temporal dominion and civil iurisdiction; and his son Lew s, when he was stripped and degraded by the bishops, n1ight accuse, in some n1easure, tho imprudence of his father. I-lis laws enforced the itnposition of tithes, because the dælnons had proclaimed in the air thai the defa,ult of payment had been the cause of the last scar- city)'!l The literary merits of Charlemagne are attested by the foundat ion of schools, the introd uction of arts, the works which were published in his name, and his fan1Îliar connection with the subjects and strangers whom he if. vited to his court to educate hoth the prince anù people. llis own studies were tardy, laborious, and imperfect; if he spoke Latin, and under- stood Greek, he derived the 1'udirnents of knowledge from conversation, rather than f1'01TI books; and, in his mature age, the emperor strove to acquire the practice of writing, which every peasant now learns in his infancy.l 2 The grarTIm r and logic, the music and astronomy, of the tirTIes, were only cultivated as the handmaids of superstition; but the. curiosity of the human lninù n1ust ulîilTIately tcnd to its improvClnent. 101 Omni:;; homo ex. sua proprietate legitimam decimam. ad eccleshm conferat. Ex.perimento enim didicimu , in anno, quo illa valida fames irrepsit, ebullire vacuas annonas ä dæmonihus dcyoratas, et voces exprobationis auditas. Such is the decree and assertion of the great Council of Fr:mkfort, (canon xxv. tom. ix. p. 10.5.) Both Selden. (Rist. of Tithes; 'V orks, vol. üi. part ü. p. 1 146) all l }'lontcsquieu (Esprit des Loix., 1. xxxi. c. 12) represent Charlemagne a.;; the first lC.fJal author of tithes. Such obligations have country gentlemcn to his memory ! 102 Eginhard (c. 2.5, p. 119) clearly affirms, tentabat et scribere . . . scd parum prospcrc successit labor præpostcrus et sero inchoatu . The mOÙi)fllS have perverted and corre.cted this obvious meaning, and thc title of 1. Gaillard' dissertation (tom. iii. p. 217-260) betrays his partiality.. · This point has been contested; but l\lr. Hallam aDd Monsieur Sis mondi cOllcur with Gihhon. See Middle Agc , iii. 3:30. Histoire de Fran- çais, tom. ii. p. 318. The sensible observations of the latter are quoted in the Qna.rterly Review, vol. xlviii. p. 451. :Fleury, I may add, quotes from Mabi1lon a remarkable evidC'l1ce that Charlemagne" had a mark to him- :ìPI ', l k(' an honest, plain tl aling m:m." Ihid. -)1. 48 THE DECLI E AND FALL anl1 the pncouragement of learning reflects the purest an (1 n10st p1easing lustt:e on the character of Chilrlemagne.lo \ 'l'hc dignity of his person,104 the lengtc of his reign, the prosperity of his arms, the vigor of his governrnent, and the reverence of distant nations, distinguish him from the royal crowd; and Europe dates a new æra from his restoration of the 'Vestern empire. That empire was not unworthy of its title; 105 and some of the fairest kingdoms of Europe were the patrimony or con- qnest of a prince, who reigned at the same time in France, Spain, Italy, Germany, and I-Iungary.lo6 1. The Rornan prov- mce of Gaul had been transfonned into the nmTIe and mon- archy of FRANCE; but, in the decay of the l\1erovingian line, its limits WE're contracted by the independence of the Britons and the revolt of Aqllitain. Charlemagne pursued, and con- fined, the Britons on the shores of the ocean; and that fero- cious tribe, whose origin and language are so different from the French, was chastised by the imposition of tribute, hos- tages, and peace. After a long and evasive contest, the rebellion of the dukes of Aquitain was punished by the for- feiture of their province, their liberty, ann their lives. I-Iarsh anrl rigorous would have heen such treatment of ambitious governors, who had too faithfully copied the lTIayors of the palace. But a recent discovery 107 has proved that these 103 See Gaillard, tQm. iii. p. 138-176, and SchmiLlt, tom. ii. p. 121 -129. hH I. Gaillard (tom. iii. p. 372) fixes the true Rtatnre of Charle- '(nagne (see a Dissertation of larq uard Freher ad ealcem 1 ginhart, 1'. 220, &c.) at five feet nine inches of French, about six feet one inch .;,nd a fourth En ìish, measure. The romance writers have increased it to eight feet, and the giant wac;; endowed with matchless strength and appetite: at a single stroke of his good sword Joyeuse, he cut asunder a hor80111.an and his hOf3e; at a single repast, he devoured a goose, t",o fo\vls, a quarter of m.utton, &c. 105 See the concise, but correct and original, work of D' Anville, {Etats Formes en Europe aprcs la Chute de l'Empire Romain en Occident, I'm-is, 1ï71, in 4to.,) whose map includes the empire of t;harlema ne; the differcnt parts are illustrated, by Valesiu (N otitia Galliarum) for France, Beretti (Dissertatio Chorographica) for Italy. De .\1arca C:\Iarca Hispaniea) for Spain. For the middle geography of Germany, I confû:o.s my elf pOOf and destitute. 106 After a brief relation of his "\vars and conquests, (Vit. Carol. e.5 -14,) Eóinhard recapitulates, in a few words, (c. 15,) the countries subje<.'t to his empire. Struvius (Corpus IIist. German. p. 1l8-14!)) has inserted in hi::: 1\ ate:; the texts of tho old Chronicles. Il'7 Of a chartf'l" granted to the monastery of .1\laon CA. D. 8Ü) hy OF THE ROl\IA.N EI\lPIRE. 49 unhappy prmces were the last and lawful heirs of the blood and sceptre of Clovis, a younger branch, from the brother of Dagobert, of the Merovingian house. Their an- cient kingdOlll was reduced to the duchy of Gascogne, to the counties of Fesenzac and Armagnac, at the foot of the Pyrenees: their race was propagated till the beginning of the sixteenth century; and after surviving their Carlovingian tyrants, they were reserved to feel the injustice, or the favors, of a third dynasty. By the reunion of Aquitain, France was enlarged to its present boundaries, with the additions of the Netherlands and Spain, as far as the Rhine. II. The Saracens had been expelled fr0111 France by the grandfather and father of Charlemagne; but they still possessed the greatest part of SPAIN, from the rock of Gibraltar to the Pyr- enees. Amidst their civil divisions, an Arabian e"ll1ir of SlHagossa illlplored his protection in the diet of Paderborn. Chademagne undertook the expedition, restored the emir, and, without distinction of faith, impartially crushed the resist- ance of the Christians, and rewarded the obedience and ser- vice of the I\Iahometans. In his absence he instituted the Spanish march,108 which extended from the Pyrenees to the River Ebro : Barcelona was the residence of the French gov- ernor: he possessed the counties of ROltsillon and Catalonia; and the infant kingdoms of Navarre and Arragon were sub- ject to his jurisdiction. III. As king of the Lombards, and patrician of Rome, he reigned over the greatest part of ITALV,109 a tract of a thousand 111iles fron1 the Alps to the borders of Calabria. The duchy of Bcnc1.:enlul7l, a Lombard fie f, had spread, at the expense of the Gre ks, over the mod- Charles the Bald, which deduces this royal pedigree. I doubt whether me subsequent links of the ixth and xth centuries are equally firm; yet the whole is approved and defended by 1\1. Gaillarsl, (tom. ii. p. 60-81, 203-20G,) who affirms that the family of lontesquiou (not of the President de lontcsquieu) is de3cended, in the female line, from Clotaire and Clovis - an innocent pretension! 108 The governors or counts of the Spanish march revolted from Charles the Simple about the year DOO; and a poor pittance, the H.ousillon, has been recovered in 1642 by the kings of France, (Lon- gueruc, Description de Ia France, tom. i. p. 220-222.) Yet the l-tousillon contains 188,900 :mbjects, and annually pays 2,600.000 livres, (Necker, Administration de::; .Finances, tom. i. p. 278, 273;) more people, perhaps, and ùoubtles:'i more money than the march of Char- lemagne. 109 Sclunidt, Rist. des Allemands, tom. ü. p. 200, &c. VOL. V. 5 50 THE DECLIND AND FALL ern kingdonl of Naples. But An'echis, the reigning duke, refused to be included in the slavery of his country; assumed the independent title of prince; and opposed his sword to the Carlovingian monarchy. I-lis defenpe was firm, his submis- sion was not inglorious, and the emperor was content with an easy tribute, the denwlition of his fortresses, and the acknowl.. edgment, on his coins, of a supreme lord. The artful flattel'Y of his son Grimoald added the appellation of father, but he asserted his dignity with prudence, and Beneventum insen. sibly escaped from the French yoke. 110 IV. Chadelnagnc was the 1ìrst who united GER:i\lANY under the same sceptre. The name of Oriental France is presen,'ed in the circle of Fran- conia ; and the people of Hesse and TIl'llringia were recently incorporated with the victors, by the conformity of religion and government. The Alc11lanni, so formidable to the Ro- mans, were the faithful vassals and confederates of the Franks; and their country was inscribed within the modern lirnits of Alsace, Swabia, and Switzerland. The Ba,,'a- rians, with a similm' indulgence of their laws and manners, were less patient of a lnaster: the repeated treasons of Tasillo justified the abolition of their hereditary dukes; and their power wàs shared among the counts, ,vho judged and guarded that important frontier. But the north of Germany, from the Rhine and beyond the Elbe, was still hostile and }J agan ; nor was it till after a war of thirty-three years that the Saxons bowed under the yoke of Christ and of Charlemagne. The idols and their votaries were extirpated: tl1e foundation of cight bishoprics, of l\lunster, OSllaburgh, Paderborn, and l\1iu- den, of Bremen, Verden, Hildesheim, and Halb rstadt, define, on either side of the \Veser, the bounds of ancient Saxony; these episcopal seats were the first schools and cities of that savage land; and the religion and humanity of the childrC'l1 atoned, in SOlTIe degree, for the lnassacre of the parents. Beyond the Elbe, the Slavi, or Sclavonians, of similar man. ners and various denominations, overspread the modcl'n do- n1inions of Prussia, Poland, and ßohclnia, and some transient marks of obediencc have tempted the French historian to extend the empire to the Baltic and the Vistula. The con. quest or conycrsion of those countries is of a more recent Ilge; but the first union of IJohernia with the Germanic body Irlay be justly ascrib.ed to the arms of Chadeulagne. V. I-Ie IIU See Giannone, tom. i. p. 374, 375, a.nd the Annals of J.lulatori. OF THE nO:\Ll "i EMPIRE. 51 retaíìated on the Avars, or I-Iuns of Pannonia, the same calamities which they had inflicted on the nations. Their rings, the wooden fortifications which encircled their districts and vil1ages, were broken down by the triple effort of a French army, that was poured into their country by land and water, through the Carpathian lllountains and along the plain of the Danube. After a bloody conflict of eight years, the loss of some French geI1'erals was avenged by the slaughter of the most noble Huns: the relics of the nation submitted: the royal residence of the chagan was left desolate and unknown; and the treasures, the rapine of two hundred and fifty years, enriched the victorious troops, or decorated the churches of Italy and Gaul. Ill After the reduction of Pannonia, the empire of Charlenlagne was bounded only by the conflux of the Danube with the Teyss and the Save: the provinces of Istria, Liburnia, and Dahnatia, were an easy, though unprofit- able, accession; and it v"as an effect of his 1110dcration, that he left the nlaritillle cities under the real or norninal sovereignty of the Greeks. But these distant possessions added more to the reputation than to the power of the Latin elnperor; nor did he risk any ecclesiastical foundations to reclaim the Barba- rians from" their vagrant life and idolatrous worship. Some canals of comrnunication between the rivers, the Saône and the I\feu e, the Rhine and the Danube, were faiutly attcm pt- ed)12 Their execution would have vivified the clnpire; and more cost and labor 'were often "'lasted in the structure of a cathedral. * If we retrace the outlincs of this geographical picture, it III Quot prælia in co gcsta! quantum sanguinis cffusum sit! Tcs- tatur vacua ömni habitatione l}annonia, ct locus in quo regia Cagani fuit ita desertus, ut ne yestigium quiLlcm humanæ hr..bitationi appareftt. Tota in hoc bello Hunnorum nobilita<:; pcriit, iota gloria decidit, omnis pecunia et congcsti ex longo tempore thesauri direpti Ullt. Egillhanl. cxiii. 112 The junction of the Hhille and Danube was undertakcn onl)- for tho service of the Pannonian ,yar, (GaillarJ.. Yie de Charlemagne, tom. ii. p. 312-3L5.) The canal, which would have been only t".o I 'gues in length, anel of which some traces aro still extant in I::hvabia, was interrupted by excessive rains, military avocations, and supol'.5tì- tious fears, (Schæpfiill, Hbt. de l' Acacl{>mie des Inscriptions. tom. xviii. p. 25G. loliminå fiuviorum, &c., jungonclorum, p. 59-G2.) · I should doubt this in the time of Charlemfl nc, even if th(\ tenn " e,- l1(lcc1 " \YE>rp "ubstitl1tcd for u wélSt('r1." -:\L ,") 52 THE DECLINE AND FALL WIt be see!. d LIt the cl11pire of the Franks extended, between east and west, from the Ebro to the Elbe 01' Vistula; between the north and south, from the duchy of Benc\rcntum to the River Eyder, the perpètual boundary of Germany and Den- marle The personal and political importance of Charlemagne was l11agni tied by the distress and division of the ]'('st of Europe. The islands of Great Britain and Ireland were diEputed by a crowd of princes of Saxon or Scottish origin: anù, after the loss of Spain, the Christian and Gothic kingdom of Alphonso the Chaste was confined to the narrow ranf:e of the Asturian n10untains. These petty sovereigns revered the power or virtue of the Carlovingian n10narch, implored the honor and support of his alliance, and styled hil11 their com- l110n parent, the sole and supreme emperor of the 'Yest. 113 He maintained a more equal intercourse with the ca!iph Ha- run al Rashid,1l4 \vhose dominion stretched from Africa to India, and accepted from his ambassadors a tent, a water- c1ock, an elephant, and the keys of the I-Ioly Sepulchre. It is not easy to conceive the private friendship of a Frank and un l\rab, ,yho \vere strangers to each other's person, and lan- guage, and religion: but their public corresp.ondence was founded on vanity, and their remote situation left no rOOil1 for a c0111petition of interest. Two thirds of the 'Yestern empire of Rome were subject to Charlemagne, and the defi- cicncy was amply supplied by his command of the inacces- sible or invincible nations of Germanv. But in the choice of his enemies,* we may be reasonably ;urprised that he so oîten 113 See Eginharcl, c. 16, vnd Gaillard, tom. ii. p. 361-385, who mcntions, ,,'ith a loosc rcference, thc intercourse of Charlemagne and Egbert, thc emperor's gift of his own sword, and the modest Rnclwer of his Saxon disciple. The anccdote, if gcnuine, ,voulcl have adorned our English historics. 114 The corrcspondcnce is mentioncd only ill the Frcnch annRì , an(1 the Oricntal-; are ignorant of the caliph's friendship for the Cltristi{tJl, (lÙfl- a politc appcllatio1l, which IIarun bestows on the emperor (If the Gree \.: . * Had he the choice? 1\1. Guizot ha'5 eloquently descrihed the po it J. of Charlemagne towa.rds the Saxons. 11 y tit fn.ce par Ie conqude; la O'ucrre defensive prit la forme offensive: il transporta la 1utte sur Ie terri. Loire des peuples qui 'Voulaient cnvahir Ie sien: il trayail1a à asscn-ir les races i'irangcrcs, et extirpcr les croyances emH'mif's. De.1à on l110de cl9 i!ûUVCrnement et la fondation de son empire: la gnerre offen lVc et la COI1- uête voulaient ceUe vastu et redoutab1e ullití>. Compare obseryations in thE' Quarterly Hcvicw, vol. J\lviii., and James's Lire of Charlemagne. -1\1. OF THE ROMAN E1\IPIRE. 53 preferred the poverty of the north to the riches of the south. 'rhe three-and-thirty campaigns laboriously consumeJ in the woods and morasses of Germany would have sufficed to assert the a!llplitude of his title by the cxpulsion of the Greeks frOln Italy and the Saracens frmn Spain. The weakness of the Greeks would have insured an easy victory; and the holy cru- sade against the Saracens would have been prompted by glory ai1d revenge, and loudly justified by religion and policy. Per- haps, in his expeditions beyond the Rhine anll the Elbe, he aspired to save. his 1110narchy from the fate of the ROll1an Cln- pife, to cljs rm the enemies of civilized society, and to eradicate !hc seed of future emi.grations. But it has been wisely ob- erved, thit, in a light of precaution, all conqucst Blust be in- euectnal, unless it could be universal, since the increasing circlE' must be involved in a larger sphere of hostility. 11'> TIle sub- ju .Lt oa of Germany withdrew the veil which had so long con- c . tted the continent or islands of Scanùinavia from the knowl- edg,J of Europe, and awakened the torpid courage of thl'ir l,arbarous natives. The fiercest of the Saxon idolaters c:;caped ft'om the Christian tyrant to their brethren of the North; the Ocean and l\Iediterranean were covered with their piratical fleets; and Charlemagne beheld with a sigh the destructive progress of the Normans, who, in less than seventy years, precipitated the fall of his race and ITIonarchy. flad the pope and the Romans revived the primitive con- stitution, the titles of elnperor and Augustus were conferred on Charlemagne for the terrn of his life; and his successors, on each v cancy, Inust have ascended the throne by a formal or tacit election. But the association of his son Lewis the Pious asserts the independent fight ('f lllonarchy and con- quest, anrl the emperor seems on this occasion to have fore- , seen and prevented the latent claims of the clergy. The royal youth was commanded to take the crown frOl11 the altar, and with his own hanùs to place it on his head, as a gift which he held frOJn God, his father, and the nation. ll : j The .1 15 Gaillard, tom. ii. p. 361-365, 471-47ß, 49 . I have borrowed his judiciom; rcmark-; on Char1em 3ne's plan of conqucst, and the judieious di"tin tion of his encmies of the fir t anù the sccond enceinte, (tom. ii. p. 18!, .509, &C'.) 116 Thegan. the bio raphcr of Lcwis, relatcs this coronation: find Baronius ha5 honc"+ly transcribed it, (A. D. 813, No. 13, &c. See Gaillard, tom. ii. p. 506, .301, ;')08,) howsocver adyc1'se to thc claims of the pope.;. 1"01' the fO-.'i'iC'..; of the C'adovill::;ians, see the historians of 5 'if 51 TIlE DECLINE .AND FALL same ceremony was repeated, though with less energy, in he subsequent associations of Lothairc and Lewis the Second: the Carlovingian sceptre was transmitted from father to son in a lineal descent of four generations; and the ambition of the pOpe's \vas reduced to the empty honor of crowning and anointing these hereditary princes, who were already invested with their power and dominions. The pious Lewis survived his brothers, and embraced the whole empire of Charle- magne; but the nations and the nobles, his bishops and his children, quickly discerned that this mighty mass was no longer inspired by the same soul; and the foundations were undermined to the centre, while the external surface was yet fair and entire. After a. war, or battle, which constuned one hundred thousm;d Franks, the empire was divided by treaty between his three sons, who had violatéd every filial and fra- ternal duty. The kingdoms of Gefl11any and France were forever separated; the provinces of Gaul, between the Rhone and the Alps, the l\Ieuse and the Rhine, were assigned, with Italy, to the Imperial dignity of Lothaire. In the partition of his share, Lorraine and Arles, two recent and transitory king- dorns, were bestowed on the younger children; and Lewis the Sccond i his eldest son, was content with the realrn of Italy, the proper and sufficient patriÏ110ny of a Roman em.. peror. On his death without any male issue, the vacant throne was disputed by his uncles and cousins, and the popes 1110st dexterously seized the occasion of judging the claims and merits of the candidates, and of bestowing on the lTIOst obsequions, or 1110st liberal, the Imperial office of advocate of the Roman church. The dregs of the Carlovingian race no longer exhibited any sY1nptOlns of virtue or power, and the ridiculous epithets of the bard, the stamlnercr, the fat, and the simple, distinguishell the talne and uniforI11 features of a crowd of kings alike deserving of oblivion. By the failure of the collateral branches, the whole inheritance devolyc:od to Charles the Fat, the last emperor of his family: his insanity authori7.ed the desertion of Germany, Italy, und France: he Was deposed in a diet, and solicited his daily bread from.t he rebels Ly whose contempt his life and liberty had been spared. According to the measure of their force, the govern- ors, the bishops, and the lords, usurped the fragments of the }'raure, Italy, and Germany; l)feffel, Schmidt, Yelly, l\Iuratori, and even Y oltaire, whose picturcs are somctimc'õ just, and always- ]!lea.sin . OF THE RO];IAN El\IPIRE. :, falling erl1plrc; and some preference was shown to The rèmale or illegitin1ate blood of Charlemagne. Of the greater part, the title and possession were alike doubtful, and the merit was adequate to the c.ontracted scale of their dominions. rrhose who could appear with an army at the gates of Rome were crowned emperors in the Vatiean; but their modesty was l110re frequently satisfied with the appellation of kings of Italy: and the whole term of seventy-four years may be deemed a vacancy, from the abdication of Charies the Fat to the estahlishn1ent of Otha the First. Otha 117 was of the noble race of the dukes of S8-'!{ony; and if he truly descended frorll \Vitikind, the adversary and proselyte of Charleu1agne, the posterity of a vanquished people was exalted to reign over their conquerors. His father, Henry the Fowler, was elected, by the suffrage of the nation, to.save and institute the kingdom of Germany. Its linlits 118 were enlarged on every side by his son, tþe first and greatest of the Othos. A portion of Gaul to the west of the Rhine, along the banks of the l\tleuse and the :MoseUc, was assigned to the Germans, by whose blood and language it has been tinged since the tirne of Cæsar and Tacitus" Between the Rhine, the Rhone, and the Alps, the successors of Otho acquired a vain supremacy over the broken kingdoms of Bur- gundy and Arles. In the North, Christianity was propagated by the sword of Otho, the conqueror and apostle of the Slavic nations of the Elbe and Oder: the n1arches of Brandenburgh and Sleswick were fortified with German colonies; and the king of Denrnark, the dukes of Poland and Bohelnia, con- fessed themselves his tributary vassals. At the head of a victorious army, he passed the Alps, subdued the kingdom of Italy, delivered the pope, and forever fixe\l the Imperial crown in the name and nation of Germany. From that u He was the son of Otho, the son of Ludolph, in whose favor the Duchy of Saxony had been instituted, A. D. 8.58. Ruotgerus, the biographer of a St. Bruno, (J3ibliot. 13unavianæ Catalog. tom. iii. vol. ii. p. 679,) gives a splendid character of his family. Atavorum atavi usque ad homiuum. memoriam omnes nobilissimi; nullus in em'urn stirpe ignotus, nullus dcgencr facile reperitur, (apud Struvium, Corp. Rist. German. p. 216.) Yet Gundling" (in Hellrico Aucupe) is not sa.tisfied of his descent from. \Yitikilld. U8 See the treatise of Conringius, (de Finibus Imperii Germanici, Francofurt. 1680, in 4to.:) he rejects the extravagant and improper scale of the Roman and Carlovingian empires, and discusses with moderation the rights of Germany, her vas&'ils, and her neighbors. 56 THE DECLINE AND FALL memoraòle æra, two maxims of puhlic jurisprudence werð introduced by force and ratified by time. 1. That the prince, " ho was elected in the Gernlan diet, acquired, from that in- stant, the subject kingdoms of Italy and Rome. II. But that he might not legally assume the titles of emperor and Augus- tus, till he had received the crown from the hands of the Roman pontifL 1l9 The Imperial dignity of Charlemagne was announced to the East by the alteration of his style; and instead of saInt- Ir g his fathers, the Greek emperors, he presumed to adopt the nlore equal and familiar appellation of brother.1 2o Per- h ps in his connection with Irene he aspired to the name of hllsbanù: his enlbassy to Constantinople spoke the language of peace and friendship, and might conceal a treaty of mar- ri3ge with that ambitious princess, who had renounced the most sacred duties of a mother. The nature, the. duration, the probable consequences of such a union between two dis- hlnt and dissonant empires, it is impossible to conjecture; but the unanimous silence of the Latins may teach us to suspect, tl at the report was invented by the enemies of Irene, to charge her with the guilt of betraying the church and state to tr.e strangers of the \Vest)21 The French ambassadors were tte spectators, and had nearly been the victims, of the con- spiracy of Nicephorus, and the national hatred. Constantino- ple was exasperated by the treason and sacrilege of ancient Rome: a proverb, " That the Franks were good friends and bad neighbors," was in everyone's mouth; but it was dan- gerous to provoke a neighbor who might be tempted to re- iterate, in the church of St. Sophia, the ceren10ny of his Irnperial coronation. After a tedious journey of circuit and 119 The power of eustom forces me to number Conrad I. and IIcnry l., the Fowler, in the list of emperors, a title which was never assum('d by those kings of Gennany. The Italian , l\Iuratori for instance, are more scrupulous and correct, and only reckon the l}rinces who hayc been crowned at Rome. 120 lnvidiam tamen susccpti nominis (C. P. impcratoribus super hoc indignantibus) magnâ tulit patienti,l, vicitque eorum contumacÏam . . . mittendo ad cos crebras legationes, et in cpistolis fra res eos appellando. Eginhard, c. 28, p. 128. Perhaps it was on th ir account that, like Augustus, he affected some reluctance to receive the empire. 121 Theophanes speaks of the coronation and unction of Charles, J\ uQovHoç, (Chronograph. p. 399,) and of his treaty of mani.age "\vith Irene, (p. 402,) which is unknown to the Latins. Gaillard relate3 his transactions with the Greek empire, (tom. ü. p. 446-468.) OF THE RO I..-\N E.i\IrIRE. 57 delay, the ambassadors of Nicephorus found hirn in his camp, on the banks Df the River Sala; and Charlemagne affccted to confound their vanity by displaying, in a Franconian village, the pomp, or at least the pride, of the Byzantine palace.l 22 The Greeks were successively led through four halls of audience: in the first they were ready to fall prostrate before a splendid perSOD:lge in a chair of state, till he informed them Iohat he was only a servant, the constable, or 111aster of the horse, of the emperor. The same 111istake, and the same an- swet', were repeated in the apartlnents of the count palatine, the steward, and the chamber!ain; and their impatience was gl'adually hClghtened, till the doors of the presence-chamber were thrown open, nnd they beheld the genuine rnonarch, on his throne, enriched with the foreign luxury which he despised, and encircled with the love and reverence of his victorious cþiefs. A treaty of peace and alliance was concluded be- tween the two empires, and the lilniis of the East and \V cst were defined by the right of present possession. But the {}reeks 1:23 soon forgot this humiliating equality, or ren1elnbcred it only to hate the Barbarians by whon1 it was extorted. Dur-. íng the short union of virtue and power, they respectfully :;;:-d uted the august Charlemagne, with the acclamations of basilfltS, and emperor of the Romans. As soon as these qualities were separated in the person of his pious son, the Byzantine letters were inscribed," To the king, or, as he styles him'3elf, the emperor of the Franks and Lombards." \Vhen both power anJ virtue were extinct, they despoiled Le\vis the Second of his hereditary title, anel with the bar- barous appellation of rex or rega, degraded him an10ng the crowd of Latin princes. I-lis reply 12-1 is expressiye of his weakness: he proves, with some learning, that, both in sacred I\!\! Gaillari Vf'ry properly observes, that this pageant ,vas a fan c Imitable to children only; but that it was incleeù repre;o;cnted in t!w pre" .mec, anJ for the LCderlt, of children of a larp;er growth. l:!J Compare, in the ori;.;inal text collected by Pagi, (tom. iii. A. D. 812, Xo. 7, .A. U. 8 J, XO. 10, &c.,) the contrast of Charlema6"lle anJ his f"m; to the former the ambassadors of ;.Iichacl (who were incleetl li:-iavo\yed) more I-UO, icl e'!t linölli Græca laudes ùixertmt, impera- toreTl1 cum et RLi.()I).flt appcllantes ; to the later, rocato impcratori j"j"(lltrorwJl., &c. 124 See the epistle, in IJ ara lipomena, of the anonymous writer of alenLO, (Script. Ital. tom. ii. rays ii. p. 243-251, c. Ù3-107,) ,\ horn Baronius (A. D. 871, Ko. 51-71) mi'3took for Erchempert, WhCll ha transcribed it in his Annals. 58 THE DECLIXE AND FALL and profane history, the name of kilig is synol1,ymou! with thr Greek word basilclls: if, at Constantinople, it were assumed in a 1110re exclusive and imperial sense, he clailTIs from his ancestors, and frOlTI the pope, a just participation of the honors of the Roman purple. The same controversy was l'cvived in the reign of the Othos; and their ambassador describes, in lively colors, the insolence of the Byzantine court. I2 .') The Greeks affected to despise the poverty and ignorance of the Franks and Saxons; and in their last decline refused to prostitute to the kings of Gennany the title of Ro- 111an emperors. These emperors, in the c1ection of the popes, continued to exercise the powers which had been assumed by the Gothic and Grecian princes; and the importance of this prerogative increased with the temporal' estate and spiritual j urisd iction of the Rom1?-n church. In the Christian aristocracy, the prill" ipal members of the clergy still formed a senate to assist the administration, and to supply the vacancy, of the bishop. Rome was divided into twenty-eight parishes, and each parish was governed by a cardinal priest, or presbyter, a title which, however common and nlodest in its origin, has aspirf'd to enl- ulate the purple of kings. Their number was enlarged by the associ:ltÏon of the seven deacons of .the most considerable hospitals, the seven palatine judges of the Lateran, and sonle dignitaries of the church. This ecclesiastical senate was directed by the seven cardinal-bishops of the Roman prav- inr:e, who were less occupied in the suburb dioceses of Ostia, Purto, .Velitræ, Tusculum, Præneste, Tibur, and the Sabines, tJian by their weekly service in the Lateran, and their supe- rior share in the honors aIlli authority of the apostolic see. On the death of the pope, these bishops recomlTIcnded a suc.. cessor to the suffrage of the college of cardinals,12 and their 125 Ipse enim vos, non impcratorem, it! est Baodw SU't linguå, 6eù "0 indignationem P':ì'a, id est 'regcm nostra vocabat, Liutpranrl, in Legat. ill Script. Ital. tom. iii. pars i. p. 479. The pope had exhorted l'icephorus, emperor of the Greeks, to make peace with Otho, the august emperor of the Romans - qu in ('riptio secU1.1ùum Gr.ccos peccatoria et tcmeraria . . . imperatorem. inquiunt, univcrsalem, Ro- 'lIla]l.orum, _1a.'1ltstltJn, 'lJwgllllm, solam, Xicephorurn, (p. 48G.) 1 6 'The origin and r>rogress of the title of caråi utl may be found in Thomassin, (Discipline de l'Eglise, tom. i. p. 1261-1 98,) Iuratori, (Antiquitat. ltaliæ Iedii ....Evi, tom. vi. Dissert. Lxi. p. 159-182,) and }Iosheim, rInstitut. Hi'3t. Eccles p. 3.J.Ö-3-!7,) who accurately re- marks the forms and changes of the election. The carJinal-bi'5hops,} OF THE ROl\fAN EmPIRE. 59 choice was ratified or rejected by the applause or clamor of the Roman people But the election was imperfect; nor could the pontiff he legally consecrated tin the ClTIperOr, the advocate of the church, had graciously signified his approba- tion and consent. The royal commissioner cxamined, on the spot, the form and freedom of the proceedings; nor was it till after a previous scrutiny into the qualifications of the call- didates, that 1m accepted an oath of fidelity, and confirn1ed the donations which had successively enriched the patrimony of St. Peter. In the frequent schisms, the rival claims were submitted to the sentence of the emperor; and in a synod of bishops he prcsum.ed to judge, to condemn, and to punish, the cri mes of a guilty pontitI: Otho the First ilTI posed a treaty on the senate and peoplc, who engaged to prefer the candi- date n10st acceptable to his majesty: 121 his successors antici- pated or prevented their choice: they qestowe-d the ROInan benefice, like the bishoprics of Cologne or Bmnberg, on their chancellors or preceptors; and whatever lnight be the merit of a Frank or Saxon, his nan1e sufficiently attests the inter- position of foreign power. These acts of prerogative were HlOst speciously excused by the vices of a popular election. 'rhe competitor who had heen excluded by the cardinals appealed to the passions or avarice of the multitude; the Vatican and the Lateran were stained with blood; and the most powerful senators., the l11arquiscs of Tuscany and the counts of rrusculum, held the apostolic see in a long and dis- graceful servitude. The R0111all pontiffs, of the ninth and tenth centuries, were insulted, imprisoned, and murdered, by their tyrants; and such was theil" indigence, after the loss and usurpation of the ecclesiastical patrimonies, that they could neither support the state of a prince, nor exercise the charity of a priest. 128 The influence of two sister prostitutes, l\:Iaro- so highly exalted by Peter DQ,miallus, are sunk to a level with the rest of the sa.cred college. 127 Firmiter jurantes, nunquam se papa.m electuros au.t audinaturoR, præter consensum et electionem Othonis ct filii sui, (Liutprand, 1. vi. c. 6, p. 472.) This important concession may.cither supply or confinn the decree of the clergy and people of Rome, so fiercely rejected by Raronius. Pagi, and iuratori, (A. D. 964,) and so well defended and explained by St. larc, (Abrégé, tom. ii. p. 808-816, tom. hr. p. 1161 -1185.) Consult that historical critic, and the Annals of Iuratori, for the election and confirmation of each pope. 128 The opprcssion and vices (If the Roman church, in the xth cen- tur)., are strongly painted in the history and legation of Liutprand. 60 THE DECLINE AND FALL zia and Theodora, was founded on their wealth and beauty fheir political and amorous intrigues: the most strenuous of their lovers were rewarded with the ROll1an Initre, anù their rciO"n 129 lTIa y have sl1 u g estcd to the darker aO"es 130 the fable 131 b b ö of a female pope)32 'fhe bastard son, the grandson, and the great-grandson of l\Iarozia, a rare genealogy, were seated in the chair of St. Peter, and it was at the age of nineteen years that the second of these became the head of the Latin church. * (iee p. 440, 4.30, 471-476, 479, &c.;) and it is '\\'himsical enough to observe l\luratori tempering the invectives of Baronius against the vopes. But these popes had been chosen, not by the cardinals, but hy lay-patrons. 129 The time of Pope J oa11 (papissa Joanna) is placed somewhat earlier than Theodora or Iarozia; and the two years of her imaginary J eign are forcibly inserted between Leo IV. and Benedict III. But the contemporary Ana tasius indissolubly links the death of I...eo and the eleyation of Benedict, (illico, mox, p. 247;) and the accurate c hronology of Pagi, Iuratori, and Leibnitz, fixes both events to the year 867. 130 The advocates for Pope Joan procluce one hundred and fifty wit- 11esses, or rather echúes, of the xÍ\rth, xvth, and xvith centuries. They bear testimony against themselves and the legend, by multiply- ing the proof that so curious a story 7nust have been repeated by writers of every description to whom it was known. On those of the ixth and xth conturies, the recent event would have flashed with a double force. 'V ould l)hotius have spared such a reproach? Could J...iutprand have missed such scandal? It is scarcely worth while to discuss the ,'arious readings of .Martinus Polonus, Sigeber of Ganl- blours, or eyen Iarianus Scotus; but a most palpable forgery is the lJaSsage of Pope Joan, which has been foisted into some :\188. and editions of the Roman Anastasius. 131 As false, it deserves that name; but I would not pronounce it increilible. Suppose a famous French chevalier of our own timc::i to have been born in Italy, and edueated in the church, instead of the army: Iter merit or fortune m.ifJ/tt have raised her to St. Peterls chair; her amours would have been natural: her deli yery in the streets unlucky, but not improbable. ]32 Till the reformation the tale was I"cpeated and.bclie\-ed without ofrence: and Joan's female statue long occupied her place among the popes in the cathedral of ienna, (Pagi, Critil'u, tom. iii. p. 614-626.) She has been annihilated by two learned Protestants, J310nùel and Dayle, (Dictiol1naire Critique, P APES8E, l OI.oxus, BLOXDEL;) but their brethren were scandalized by this equitable and generous criti- cism. Spanhcim and Lenfant attempt to save this poor engine of controvcrsy; and even :Mosheim condescends to cherish some doubt and suspicion, (p. 289.) · Jol n XI. wa!'! the son of her hUöband Alb(.ric, not of her lO"7er, Po po 8ergius I [1., as l\luratori has distinctly proved, Ann. ad ann. 911, tom. v. OF THE ROl\IAN El\IPIRE. 6] His youth and manhood were of a suitable cOlnplexion; and the nations of pilgrims could bear testinlony to the charges that were urged against hilTI in a Roman synod, and in tho presence of Otho the Great. As John XII. had renounced the dress and decencies of his profession, the soldier may not perhaps be dishonored by the wine which he drank, the blood 1hat he spilt, the flames that he kindled, or the licentious pur- suits of gaming and hunting. His open simony might be the consequence of distress; and his blasphemous invocation of Jupiter and Venus, if it be true, could not possibly be serious. But we read, with some surprise, that the worthy grandson of l\Iarozla lived in public adultery with the matrons of Rome; that the Lateran palace was turned into a school for prostitu- tion, and that his rapes of virgins and widows had deterred.the female pilgrims from visiting the tomb of St. Peter, lest, in the devout act, they should be violated by his successor.l 33 The Protestants have dwelt with malicious pleasure on these characters of Antichrist; but to a philosophic eye, t e vices of the clergy are far less dangerous than their virtues. After a long series of scandal, the apo.3totic see was reformed and exalted by the austerity and zeal of Gregory VII. That arn- bitious monk devoted his life to the execution of two projects. I. To fix in the college of cardinals the freedom and inde. penùence of election, anù forever to abolish the right or usur- pation of the emperors and the Roman people. II. To bestow and reSUllle the \Vestern empire as a fief or benefice 134 of the church, and to extend his temporal don1inion over the kil1g 133 Lateranense p.alatium . . . prostibulum meretricum . . . Testis omnium gentium, præterquam RomanoruIll, ab::;entia mulierum, quæ sanctorum apostolorllffi limina orancli gratià timent visf're, cum non- nullas ante dies paucos, hune aud.ierint conjugatas, viùuas, yirgines vi oppressisse, (Liuti)rancl, Hist. 1. vi. c. 6, p. 4ï1. See the whole affair of John XII., p. 471--476.) l3-1 A new example of the mischief of cquivo ation is the beJU:fic wn, (D ucange, tom. i. p. 617, &e.,") 'W hieh the pope couferred on the em- peror Fre,leric 1., since the Latin word may signify either a le al iicf, or a simple favor, an obligation, (we want the word bieJ t(Út.) (See S hmidtt lIi t. des Allemands, tom. iii. p. 3a3-40H. Pfetfel, A.brégé Chron:Jlogique, tom. Ì. p. 2:W, 296, 317, 321:, 420, 430, 500, 505, 609, &c:) p. GS. Her grandson Octavian, otherwise called John XII.. Was pope; Lut a great-grandson cannot be discovered in any of the succeeding popes; nor does our historian himself. in his suu')equent narration, (p. 2\)2,) seem to know of one. IIobhouse, Illustra.tions of 'Childe H rold, p. 30!). -1\1. VOL. V. 6 62 THE DECLINE AND FALL and kingdoms of the earth. After a contest of fifty years, the first of these designs was accomplished by the firm support of the ecclesiastical order, whose liberty was connected with that of their chief. But the second attempt, though it was crowned with some partial and apparent success, has been vigorously resisted by the secular power, and finally extin.. guished by the improvement of human reason. In the revival of the empire of Rome, neither the bishop nor the people could bestow on Charlelnagne or Otho the provinces which were lost, as they had been won, by the chance of anTIs. But the Romans were free to choose a master for themselves; and the powers which had been dele.. gated to the patrician, were irrevocably granted to the Fren h and Saxon emperors of the \Vest. "fhe broken records of the times 135 preserve SOlne remembrance of their palace, their 111int, their tribunal, their edicts, and the sword of justice, which, as late as the thirteenth century, was derived from Cresar to the præfect of the city.I 36 Between the arts of the popes and the violence of the people, this supremacy was crushed and annihilated. Content with the titles of emperor and Augustus, the successors of Charlenmgne negl cted to assert this local jurisdiction. In the hour of prosperity, their ambition was d verted by more alluring objects; and ill the decay and divisIOn of the empire, they were oppressed by the defence of their hereditary provinces. Amidst the ruins of Italy, the fan10us l\Iarozia invited one of the usurpers to assume the character of her third husband; and I-I ugh, king of Burgundy, was introduced by her faction into the mole of IIa:1rian or castle of St. Angelo, which commands the princi- pal bridge and entrance of Rome. Her son by the first mar.. riage, Alberic, was compelled to attend at the nuptial banquet; but his reluctant and ungraceful service was chastised with a blow by his new father. The blow was productive of a re\'o. Iution. "Romans," exclaimed the youth, "once you were the masters of the world, and these Burgundians the n10st abject of your slaves. They now reign, these voracious and Itt.') For the history of the emperors in Rome and Italy, see Sigonius, ë.. Regno Italiæ, Opp. tom. ii., with the Notes of Saxius, and tho Annals of }'luratori, who might refer more distinctly to the authora ôf his great collection. 136 See the Dissertation of Le Blanc at the end of his trea1iSE" des 1{onnoyes de France, in which he produces some Roman coinE of the French emrerors. OF THE ROl\IA EItlPIRE. 63 bnltal savages, and my injury is the COlnmencement of your servitude." 137 The alarmn bell rang to arms in every quar- ter of the city: the Burgundians retreated with haste and sh:une; l\Iarozia was imprisoned by her victorious son, and his brother, Pope Juhn XI., was reduced to the exercise of his spiritual functions. \\lith the title of prince, Alberic possessed above twenty years the goverml1ent of Rome; and he is said to have gratified the popular prejudice, by restoring the office, or at least the title, of consuls and tribunes. His son and heir Octavian assumed, with the pontificate, the name of John XII.: like his predecessor, he was provoked by the L0111bard princes to seek a deliverer for the church and republic; and the services of Otho were rewarded with the Imperial dignity. But the Saxon was imperious, the Romans were impatient, the festival of the coronation was disturbed by the secret con- fEct of prerogatiye and freedon1, and Otho cOlnmanded his sword-bearer not to stir fron1 his person, lest he should be assaulted and rnurdered at the ot of the altar)38 Before he repassed the Alps, the mnperor chastised the revolt of the people and the ingratitude of John XII. The pope was de.. graded. in a synod; the præfect was mounted on an ass, whipped through the city, and cast into a dungeon; thirteen of the most guilty were hanged, others W re mutilated or banished; and this severe process was justified by the ancient la ws of Theodosius and J usÜnian. The voice of fame has accused the second Otbo of a perfidious and bloody act, the massacre of the senators, whom he had invited to his table under the fair semblance of hospitality and friendship.l39 In the minority of his son Otho the Third, ROlne 111ade a bold attempt to shake off the Saxon yo.ke, and the consul Crescen-:- tius \-vas the Brutus of the republic. From the condition of a subject and an exile, he twice }'ose to the corrnnand of the 137 H.omanorum aliq uando servi, scilicet Burgundiones, Romanis im.perent? . . . Romanæ urbis di nitas ad talltam est stultitiam ducta, ut meretricum etiam imperio parcat? (Liutprand, 1. iii. c. 12, p. 4.30.) SigoniuR (ì. vi. p. 400) positivcly affirms the rcnovation of the Con- sulship; but in the old writers Albcricus is morc ii'cquently styled princeps Romanorum. 138 Ditmar, p. 354, avud Schmidt, tom. i i. p. 439. 139 This bloody feast is described in Leonine verse in the Pantheon of Goclfrey of Viterbo, (Script. Ital. tom. vii. p. 436, 437,) who flour- ished towards the cnd of the xiith century, (Fabricius Bibliot. Latin. led. et Infimi ..lEvi, tom. iii. p. 69, edit. :Mansi;) but his eviclencp-. which imposed 011 Sigonius, i":\ l'ca'mnably suspected by JHuratod. ( Annali, tom. viü. p. 177.) 61 THE lJECLINE AND FALL city, oppressed, expelled, and created the popes, and formed a conspiracy for restoring the authority of the G reek ern.. perol's. * In the fortress of 8t. Angelo, he n1aintained an ob- stinate siege, till the unfortunate consul was betrayed by a promise of safety: his body was suspenùed on a gibbet, and his head was exposed on the battlements of the castle. By a reverse of fortune, Otho, after separating his troops, wns be- sieged three days, without food, in his palace; and a dis- graceful escape saved him frorn the justice or fury of the l{ornans. The senator Ptolemy ,vas the leader of the people, and the widow of Crescentius enjoyed the pleasure or the fame of revenging her husband, by a poison which she aù- ministered to her 1m perial lover. It was the design of Otho the Third to abandon the ruder countries of the North, to erect his throne in Italy, and to revive the institutions of the Ron1an monarchy. But his successors only once in their lives appeared on the banks of the Tyber, to receive their crown in the Vatican.l 40 Their absence was contemptible, their presence odious anò formidable. They descended from the Alps, at the head of their barbarians, who were. strangers and enemies to the country; and their transient visit was a scene of tumult and bloodshed. 141 A faint remcrnbrance of their ancestors still tormented the R0111anS; and they beheld with pious indignation the succession of Saxons, Franks, Swabians, and Dohe111ians, who usurped the purple and pre- rogatives of the Cæsars. There is nothing perhaps more adverse to nature and reason than to hold in obedience rel110te countries and foreign nations, in opposition to their inclination and interest. A tor- rent of Barbarians rnay pass over the earth, but an extensive 140 The coronation of the emperor, and some original ceremonies of the xth century are pre;;;erved in the Panegyric on Bcren;jarius, (Seript. !tal. tom. ü. pars i. p. 40;5-414,) illustrated by the X otes of Hvdrian Valesius and LC'ibnitz. Sigonius has related the whole pro- ce s of the Roman cxpeùition, in good Latin, but with some errors of time and fact, (1. yii. p. 441-4.1G.) 141 In a qualTcl at the coronation of Conrad II. Iuratori takcs lea,-e to observe - ùoycano hen c:;sere allora, incli ciplinati, Darbari, e bcstiali i Tedeschi. Annal. tom. "iii. p. 368. * The Marquis :Maffei's gallery contained a medal with Imp. Cæs. Au- gust. P. P. Crescentius. Hence Hoùhouse infers that he affected the em- pire. Hobhouse, Illustrations of Childe Harold, p. 252. - M. OF THE IW \IAX r.i\IPIR . G empire .must be supported by a refined system of poli'_'f nd oppressIOn; in the centre, an absolute power, prol111't in action and rich in resources; a swift and easy commuLica- tion with the extren1e parts; fortifications to check tlle tirst effort of rebellion; a regular administration to protect <pubHques Italiennes. Hallam 8 Ilddle A es. Raumer, Geschichte der Hohenstauffen. SaviO'ny, Ge. schichte des Rvmischell Rcchts, vol. iii. p. 19, with the authors M quoted. -- I. 6* 66 THE DECLINE AND FALL against the independence of the nobles. But their rapid progress, the daily extension of their power and pretensions, were founded on the numbers and spirit of these rising COlli- 111unities.1 43 Each city filled the n1easure of her diocese or district: the jurisdiction of the counts and bishops, of the Inarquisets and counts, was banished from the land; and the proudest nobles were persuaded or com relled to desert their solitary castles, and to embrace the 1110re honorable character of freemen and magistrates. The legislative authority was inherent in the general assembly; but the executive powers were intrusted to three consuls, annua.lly chosen from the three orders of captains, valvassors,144 and commons, into which the republic was divided. Under the protection of equal law, the labors of agriculture and commerce were gradually revived; but the 111artial spirit of the Lombards was nourished by the presence of danger; and as often as the bell was rung, or the standard 145 erected, the gates of the city poured forth a nun1erous and intrepid band, whose zeal in their own cause was soon guided by the use and dis- cipline of arms. At the foot of these popular ramparts, the pride of the Cæsars was overthrown; and the invincible genius of liberty prevailed over the two Frederics, the great- est princes of the Iniddle age; the first, superior perhaps in military prowess; the second, who undoubtedly excelled in the softer accomplishments of peace and learning. Ambitious of restoring the splendor of the purple, Frederic the First invaded the republics of Lombardy, with the arts of a stateslnan, the valor of a soldier, and the cruelty of a tyrant. The recent discovery of the Pandects had renewed a science 1110st favorable to despotis111; and his venal advocates pro.. claimed the emperor the absolute master of the lives and properties of his subjects. His royal prerogatives, in a less odious sense, were acknowledged in the diet of Roncaglia; 143 Gtho, bishop of Frisingen, has left an important passage on the Italian cities, (1. ii. c. 13, in Script. Ita!. tom. vi. p. 707-710:) and the rise, progress, and government of these republics are perfectly illustrated by Iuratori. (Alltiquitat. Ita1. ledü LEyi, tom iy. dissert. xlv.-lii. p. 1-675. Aunal. tom. viii. ix. x.) 1-t-l For these titles, see Selden, (Titles of Honor, vol. iii. part i. p. 488,) Ducange, (Gloss. Latin. tom. ii. p. 140, tom. vi. p. 776,) and St. :Marc, (Abrégé Chronologique, tom. ii. p. 719.) 145 The Lombards inyented and useel the carocium" a standard planted on a ('ar or wagon, drawn by a team of oxen, (Ducange, tom. ii. p. 194, ID5. IU1'atori, Antiquitat. tom. ii. dis. xxvi. p. 489-4D3.) OF THE ROl\iAN El\IPIRE. 67 and the revenue of Italy was fixed at thirty thousand pounds of silver,146 which \vere multiplied to an indefinite demand, by the rapine of the fiscal officers. The obstinate cities were reduced by the terror or the force of his arms: his captives were delivered to the executioner, or shot from his military engines; and, after the siege and surrender of l\Iilan, the buildings of that stately capital were razed to the ground, three hundred hostages were sent into Gerrnany, and the inhabitants were dispersed in four villages, under the yoke of tho inflexible conqueror.l 47 But l\1ilan soon rose from her ashes; anù the league of Lombardy was cemented by dis- tress: their cause was espoused by Venice, Pope Alexander the Third, and the Greek emperor: the fabric of oppression was overturned in a day; and in the treaty of Constance, Frederic subscribed, with some reservations, th freedom of four-and-twenty cities. I-lis grandson contended with their vigor and rnaturity; but Frederic the Second 148 was endowed with some personal and peculiar advantages. I-lis birth and ed- ucation recommended h m to the Italians; and in the impla- càble discord of the two factions, the Ghibelins were attached to the emperor, while the Guelfs displayed the banner of liberty and the chureh. The court of Rome had slumbered, when his father IIenry the Sixth was permitted to unite with the en1pire the kingdoms of Naples and Sicily; and from these hereditary realms the son derived an ample and ready supply of troops and treasure. Yet Frederic the Second was finally oppressed by the arms of the Lmnbards and the thun- ders of the Vatican: his kingdom was given to a stranger, and the last of his fmnily was beheaded at Naples on a public scaffold. During sixty years, no Clllperor appeared in Italy, 146 Gunther Ligurinus, I. viii. 684, ct selJ.., apud Schmidt, tom. iü. p. 393. 147 Solus imperator facÏem sumn firmavit ut petram, (Bm'carel. de Excidio :\Iediolani, Script. Ita!. tom. \Oi. p. 9 17.) This volume of Illratori contains the originals of the history of Frederic the First, which must be comparcd. with due regard to thc circumstances and prejudices of each German or Lombard writer.. 148 For the history of l<'recleric II. and the housc of Swabia at N a- pIes, see Giannone, Istoria. Civilc; tom. ii. 1. xiy.-xix. · Yon Hamner has traced the fortunes of the Swabian house in one of the ablest historical works of moùern times. He may ue compared with the spirited and independent Sismondi. - I. 68 THE DECLINE AND FALL and the name was remembered only by the ignominious salE.' of the Jast relics of sovereignty. The Barbarian conquerors of the 'Vest were pleased to decorate their chief with the title of emperor; but it was not theil' design to invest him with the despotism of Con Lantine and Justinian. The persons of the Germans were free, their conquesÎs were their own, and their national character ,vas animated by a spint which scorned the servile jurisprudence of the new or the ancient Rome. It would hav been a vain and dangerous atternpt to impose a monarch on the armed freemen, who were impatient of a magistrate; on the bold, who refused to obey; on the powerful, who aspired to COIn- lnand. The enlpire of Charlemagne and Otho was distributed among the dukes of the nations or provinces, the counts of thn RmaJler districts, and the 111argraves of the marches or fron- tiers, who all united the civil and military authority as it had been ùelegated to the lieutenants of the first Cæsars. 'The Roman governors, who, for the Inost part, were soldiers of fortune, seduced their nlercenary legions, asslHned the Im- perial purple, and either failed or succeeded in their revolt, without wounding the power and unity of government. If the dukes, margraves, and counts of Germany, were less auda- cious in their claims, the consequences of their success were more lasting and pernicious to the state. Instead of ainlÎng at the supreme rank, they silently labored to establish and appropriate their provincial independence. Their an1bition was seconded by the weight of their estates and vassals, their Dlutual example and support, the conl1non interest of the subordinate nobility, the change of princes and fti.milies, the minorities of Otho the Third and Henry the Fourth, the an1- o)ition of the popes, and the vain pursuit of the fugitive crowns of Italy and Rome. All the attributes of regal and territorial jtuisdiction were gradually usurped by the comu1anders of the provinces; the right of peace and war, of life and death, of coinage and taxation, of foreign aU iance and domestic econ- omy. \Vhatever had been seized by violence, was ratified by favor or distress, was granted as the price of a doubtful vote or a voluntary service; whatever had been granted to one, could not, without injury, be denied to his successor or equal; and every act of local or temporary possession was insensibly moulded into the constitution of the Germanic kingdom. In every province, the visible presence of the duke or count was interposed betwef'l1 the throne and the nobles; the subiects OF THE ROl\IAN EMPIRE. 69 of the law became the vassals of a private chief; and the standard which he received from his sovereign, was often raised against him in the field. The ten1poral power of the clergy was cherished and exalted by the superstition or policy of the Carlovingian and Saxon dynasties, who blindly depended. on their moderation and fidelity; and the bi!:;hoprics of Ger- n1any were made equal in extent and privilege, superior in wealth and population, to the most ample states of the rnilitary order. As long as the emperors retained the prerogative of bestowing on every vacancy these ecclesi:lstic and secular benefices, thcir cause was maintained by the gratitude or ambition of their friends and favorites. But in the qu rrel of the investitures, they were deprived of their influence over the episcopal chapters; the fl"eedOl11 of election was restored, anù the sovereign was reduced, by a solemn 1110ckery, to hisfirst l rayers, the recommendation, once in his reign, to a single prebend in each church. The secular governors, instead of being recalled at the will of a superior, co.uld be degraded only by the sentence" of their peers. In the first age of the lTIonarchy, the appointment of the son to the duchy 01 county of his father, was solicited as a favor; it was gradually ob- tained as a custom, and extorted as a right: the lineal succes- siJn was often extended to the collateral or female branches; the states of the empire (their popular, and at length their legal, appellation) were divided and alienated by testament and sale; and all idea of a public trust was lost in that of a private and perpetual inheritance. The emperor o-:'::1ld not even be enriched by the casualties of forfeiture and extinc- tion: within the tern1 of a year, he was obliged to dispose of the vacant fief; and, in the choice of the candiùa.te, it was hi duty to consult either the general or the provincial diet. AIter the death of Frederic the Second, Germany was left a 1110nster with a hunJred heads. A crowd of princes and prelates disputed the ruins of the empire: the lords of innu- merable castles were less prone to obey, than to imitate, their superiors; and, according to the rneasure of their strength, their incessant hostilities received the names of coniuest or lobbery. Such anarchy was the inevitaùle consequence of the laws and n1anners of Europe; and the kingdoms of France and Italy were shivered into frù.gments by the violence of the same tempest. But the Italian cities and the French vassals were divided and destroyed, while the union of !hc Germans has produced, unòer th8 name of an empire, a great systen.\ 70 THE DECLINE AND FALL of a federative repubJic. In the frequent and at last the per- petual institution of diets, a national spirit was kept alIve, and the powers of a common legislature are still exercised by the three branches or colleges of the electors, the princes, and the free and 1lTIperia] cities of Gefll1any. 1. Seven of the most powerful feudataries were perJnitted to assume, with a distinguished name and rank, the exclusive privilege of choosing the Roman emperor; aner these electors were the king of Bohemia, the duke of Saxony, the margrave of Bran- dcnburgh, the count palatine of the Rhine, and the three arehbishops of l\Ientz, of Treves, and of Cologne. II. The college of princes and prelates purged themselves of a pro- n1iscuous multitude: they reduced to four representative votes the long series of independent counts, and excluded thÐ nobles or equestrian order, sixty thousand of WJ10lTI, as in the Polish diets, had appeared on horseba k in the field of election. III. rrbe pride of birth and dOll1inion, of the sword and the mitre, wisely adopted the commons as the third branch of the legis- lature, and, in the progress of society, they were introduced about the same æra into the national assemblies of France, England, and Germany. The Hanseatic League commanded the trade and navigation of the north: the confederates of the Rhine secured the peace and intercourse of the inland country; the influence of the cities has been aùequate to their wealth and policy, and their negative still invalidates the acts of the two superior colleges of electors and princes. 149 U9 In the immense labyrinth of the Jus publicw:n of Germany, I must either quote one writer or a thousand; and I had rather trust to one faithful guide, than transcribe, on c.redit, a multitude of names and passages. That guide is )1. Pfcffel, the author of the bc t legal anJ constitutional history that I know of any country, (N ollyel Abrégé Chronologique de l'Histoire et du Droit public Allemagne ; Paris, 1776, 2 vols. in 41.0.) His learning and judgment have dis- cerned the most interesting facts; his simple brevity c.ompriíSes them in a narow space. His c.hronological order distributes them under hc proper dates; and an elaborate index collects them under their re- spective heads. To this work, in a less perfect f:tate, Dr. Robertson was gratefully indebted for th3.t masterly sketch which traces even the modern changes of the Germanic body. The Corpus Historiæ Germanicæ of Struvius has been likewise consulted, the more usc- fully, as that huge compilation is fortified in every page with the úriginal texts. * · For the rise and progress of the Hanseatic League, consult the author- itative history b)' Sartorius; Geschichte des lIa1l8eéltisch n Bundcli, OF THE ROl\IAN El\IPIRE. 71 It is in the fourteenth century that we lTIay view in the strongegt light the state and contrast of the Roman empire of Germany, which no longer held, except on the borders of the Rhine and Danube, a single province of Trajan or Constan- tine. Their unworthy successors were the counts of Haps- burgh, of Nassau, of Luxen1burgh, and Schwartzenhurgh : the emperor Henry the Seventh procured for his son the crown of Bohen1ia, and his grandson Charles the Fourth was born among a people strange and barbarous in the estimation of the Germans thelnselves.l 3o After the eXCOlTIIllUnication of Lewis of Bavaria, he received the gift or pronllse of the va- cant empire frOlll the Roman pontiffs, \vho, in the exile and captivity of Avignon, affected the dominion of the earth. The death of his cornpetitors united the electoral college, and Charles was unanimously saluted king of the Romans, and future emperol'; a titie which, in the S3-me age, was prosti- tuted to the Cæsars of Germany and Greece. The German emperor was no more than the elective and impotent magis- trate of an aristocracy of princes, who had not left l1Ün a village that he Inight call his own. IIis best prerogative was the right of presiding and proposing in the national senate, which was convened at his surnmons; and his native king- dom of Bohemia, less opulent than the adjacent city of N u- remberg, was the firmest seat of his power and the richest source of his revenue. The army with which he 'passed the Alps consisted of three hundred horse. In the cathedral of St. Ambrose, Charles was crowned with the iron crown, which traùition ascribed to the Lombard 1110narchy ; but he was admitted only with a peaceful train; the gates of the city were shut upon him; and the king of Italy was held a cap tive by the arl11S of the Visconti, whom he confirn1ed in the sovereignty of :Milan. In the Vatican he was again crowned with the golden crown of the cl11pire; but, in obedicnce to a 1:;0 Yet, personally, Charles IV. must not be c.onsidered as a Barba- rian. After his education at ParÜ.., he recovered the use of the Bohemian, his native, idiom; and the emperor con versed and wrote with equal facility in :French, Latin, Italian, and German, (Struvius, p. 615, 616.) Petrarch always represents him as a polite and learneù prince. :1 Theile, Gottingen, 1802. Xcw anù improved edition by Lappenberg, Hamburg, 1830. The original Hanseatic League comprehended Cologne, aud many of the great cities in the Netherlands and 011 the Rhine. - M. 'i2 THE DECLI E AND FALL secret treaty, the Roman emperor irruTIediately withdrew, without" reposing a single night within the walls or" Rome. The eloquent Petrarch,l51 whose fancy revived the visionary glories of the Capitol, dep10res and upbraids the ignominious flight of the ßohmnian; and even his contemporaries could observe, that the sole exercise of his authority was in the lucrative sale of privileges and titles. The gold of Italy secured the election of his son; but such was the shameful poverty of the Roman en1peror, that his person was arrested by a butcher in the streets of \V orms, and was detained in the public inn, as a pledge or hostage for the payment of his eÀpenses. From this hmTIiliating scene, let us turn to the apparent lTIajesty of the san1e Cha les in the di ts of the empire. The golden bull, which fixes the GeflTIanic onstitution, is promul- gated in the style of a sovereign and legislator. A hundred princes bowed before his throne, and exalted their own dig- nity by the voluntary honors which they yielded to their chief or lTIihister. At the royal banquet, the hereditary great offi- cers, the seven electors, who in rank and title were equal to kings, performed their solemn and domestic service of the palace. The sea.ls of the triple kingdom were borne in state by the archbishops of l\lentz, CologI1e, and Treves, the per. petual arch-chancellors of Germany, Italy and Aries. 'The great marshal, on horseback, exercised his functJOn wltn a silver lneasure of oats, which he emptied on the ground, and immediately dismounted to regulate the order of the guests. 'The great steward, the count palatine of the Rhine, placed the dishes on the table. The great chamberlain, the mar- grave of Brandenburgh, presented, after the repast, the golden ewer and basin, to wash. The king of Bohemia, as great cup.bearer, was represented by the emperor's brother, the duke of Luxemburgh and Brabant; and the procession was closed by the great huntsmen, who introduced a boal: and a stag, with a loud chorus of horns and hounds.l 52 Nor was the Sl1prelTIl:lcy of the empe or confined to Germany alone: the hereditary monarchs of Europe confess d the preëminence 1,,1 Bc i(les the German and Italian historians, the expedition of Charles IV. is painted in lively and original colors in the curious 1,lémoires sur la Yie de Petrarque, tom. iii. p. 376-430, by the \.bbc) è.e Sade, whose prolixity has lle\'er been blamed by any reader of taste find eurios ty. lá' See the whole ceremony in Struvius, p. G 9. OF TIlE Ro rAN El\IPIRC. 73 of his rank and dignity: he was the first of the Christian princes, the temporal head of the great republic of the \Vest: 153 to his person the title of 111ajesty was long ap- propriated; and he disputed with the pope the sublime pre- rOt;ative of creating kingJ and assembling councils. The oracle of the civil law, the learned Bartolus, was a pensioner of Charles the Fourth; and his school resounded with the doctrine, that the Roman emperor was the rightful sovereign of the earth, from the ri ing to the setting sun. The con- trary opinion was condernned, not as an error, but as a heresy, since even the gospel had pronounced, "And there went forth a decree fron1 Cæsar Augustus, that all tile world should be taxed." 1,j4 If we annihilate the interval of time and space between Augustus and Charles, strong and striking win be the contrast between the two Cæsars; the Bohemian who concealed his weakness under the mask of ostentation, and the Roman, who disguised his strength under the semblance of modesty. At the head of his victorious legions, in his reign over the sea nnd land, from the Nile and Euphrates to the Atlantic Ocean, A.ugustl1S profp.ssed himself the servant of the state and the eq lal of his fellow.citizens. Th conqueror of Rome and her provinces assumed the popular and legal form of a cen- sor, a consul, and a tribune. His will was the law of man- kinit, but in the declaration of his laws he borrowed the voice of the senate and people; and from their decrees their 111as- ter accepted and renewed his temporary commission to ad- 111inister the republic. In his dress, his domestics,15.,} his titles, in all the offices of social life, Augustus maintained the char- acter of a private Rom n; and his lnùst artful l1atterers respected the secret of his absoiute and perpetual monarchy. 153 The republic of Europe, 'with the pope and emperor at its head, 1\'11'; never represented with more dignity than in the council of Con- stance. See Lenfantls History of that assembly. 1';-1 Gravina, Origines Juris Civilis, p. 108. ];já Six thousand urns have been di5covered of the slaycs and freed- men of Augustus and Livia. So minute was the division of office, that one slave was appointed to weigh the wool which was spun by the empress's maids, a.nother for the care of her lapdog, &c., (Camero Sepolchrale, by Bianchini. E'\:.tract of his work in the Bibliothèqu6 Italique, tom. iv. p. 17':;. His Eloge, by Fontenelle, tom. vi. p. 356.) But the e sen.ants 'wero of the same rank, and possibly not more numerous than those of Pollio or Lentulus. They only prove tho general riches of the city. VOT.. V. 7 '.1 TIlE DECLINE AND FALL CHAPTER L. DESCRIPTION OF ARABIA AND ITS INHABITANTS. - BIRTJ! CHARL\CTER, AND DOCTRINE OF lYIAH01\IET. --. HE PREACHES AT MECCA. - FI..IES TO MEDINA. - PROPAGATES HIS RELl- !1IO::'i BY THE S"VORD. - VOLUNTARY OR RELUCTANT SUB- :r.IISSION OF THE .I"\RABS. - HIS DEATH AND SUCCESSORS.- THE CLAE\!S AND FORTUNES OF ALl AND lIIS DESCENDANTS. AFTER pursuing above six hundred years the fleeting Cæsars of Constantinople and Germany, I no\y descend, in the reign of Heraclius, on the eastern borders of .the Greek nlonarchy. \Vhile the state was exhausted by the Persian war, and the church was distracted by the Nestorian and l\lonophysite sects, l\lahomet, with the sword in one hand and the Koran in the other, erected his throne on the ruins of Christianity and of Rome. The genius of the Arabian prophct, the manners of his nation, and the spirit of his religion, involve the causes of the decline and fall of the Eastern empire; and our eyes are curiously intent on one of the most n1emorable revolu- tions, which have impressed a new and lasting character on the nations of the globe. l In the vacant space between Persia, Syria, Egypt, and Æthiopia, the .Arabian peninsula 2 nlay be conceived as a 1 As in this and the following chapter I shall display much Arabic learning, I must profess my total ignorance of the Oriental tongues, and my gratitude to the learned interpreters, who have transfused their scienc.e into the I.atin, French. and Engli:::;h languages. Their collections, versions, and histories, I shall occasionally notice. 2 The geographers of .L'Uabia may be dividctl into three cla:::;ses: 1. The Grccks and Latins, whose progressive knowledge may be traced in Agatharcides, (de ::\Iari Rubro, in Hudson, Geograph. .:\Iinor. tom. i.,) l>iodorus Siculus, (tOlU. i. 1. ii. p. 1,39-16ï, 1. iii. p. 211- 216, edit. "\Y esseling, ) Strabo, (1. xvi. p. 1112-1114, from Eratos- thenes, p. 1122-1l3 . from .A.rtemidorus,) Dionysius, (Pcriegesis, 927 -969,) Pliny, (Hist. :Natur. v. 12, vi. 3:!,) and Ptolemy, (Descript. et Tabulæ Urbium, in Hudson, tom. iii.) 2. The A,'a.bic 'Writers, who have treated the subject with the zeal of patriotism or devotion: the extracts of I)ococ.k (Specimen Hist. Arabum, p. 12.5-128) from the - Geography of the SÚerif al Edrissi, render us 8till more dissatisfied ,,-.ith the VerSiGl1 or abridgment (p. 2-l- 7, 4-1-56, 108, &c., 119, &c.) -OF THE RO IAN EmPIRE. 75 triaD bie of spnciolls but irf( gular climensions. From the northern point of Bcles 3 on the Euphrates, a line of fifteen hunùrcd miles is terminated by the Straits of llabehnnndel and the land of frankincense. About half this length lay be allowed for the mid.dle hreadth, from cast to \Vest, frDm Das- sora to Suez, from the Persian Gulf to the Red Sea. 4 The sides of the triangle are gradually enlarged, and the southern basis presents a front of a thousand miles to the Indian Ocean. 11'he entire surface of the pcninsu.la exce-cds in a fourfold proportion that of Germany or France; hut the far greater p:ut has been jti:s ly sti{;rnatized with the epithets of the stony lnd the sanà!J. .Even the wilds of Tartary are decked, by the hand of nature, with lofty trces and luxuriant herbage; and the lonesome travelIer dc.'ives a sort of comfort and society f1'0111 the presence of vegetable life. But in the dreary waste of .Arabia, a boundless level of sand is intersected by sharp and naked mountains; and the face of the desert, with- out shade or shelter, is scorched by the direct and intcnse rays of a tropical sun. Instead of refreshing brcezes, the which the )Iaronites have published under the absurd. title of Geo- graphia N uhiensi'i, (Paris, hag;) but the Latin and J;rench transla- tors, Grcan:s (in I-Iud3on, tom. iii.) anù Galland, (Voyage de 13 Palestine par LaRoque, p. 265-3!ß,) have openell to us the Arahia of Abulfeda, the most pious and correct account of t.he pellìn::;u13, which may be enrichod., however, from the llibliotllèque Orientale of D'IIerbelot, p. 120, et alibi pas:;im. 3. The Europcan trm:cllers; among who111 Shaw (p. 4;)S-4:.JrJ) and Xicbuhr (Description, 1773; Yoya es, tom. i. 1776) deserve all honora.ble distinction: 13uschillg (Geogra- phic par :Dcrcnger, tom. ,'iii. p. 416-510) ha-; co:mpiled with judg- :ment; and D' Ar:.villc's .Maps (Orbis Y ctcribus N otu.s, and 1 re }): rtia ùc l' Asic) should lie beforc the reader, with. his Géographie \.ncienlle, tom. ii. p. 208-231.. :I Abulfcd. Descript. Arabiæ, p. 1. D' ...\.nvi11e, 1'Euphrate et Ie Tigre, p. 19, 20. It was in this l'lace, the raradise or garden of fill. 2. That the svnonynwus word ?' t\wç, " 'íOI!J, alluùe to the color of the blacks 01" .n(' röc;.:, (Disscrt. \lisccll. t 1Hl. i. p. õ9-117.) · Of modem tra 'encrs may be mentioned the a(h-"'ntl1 'pr whf) (':111(..] hims(>lf Ali Be)' but aboH' all t)w int(.llj (,lIt. the pntl'l"pri"iu . till' H('(,ll" rat BUf('khaJ"Clt. -- 'f. . 'ì6 TIlE DECLINE AND FALL winds, particularly fron1 the south-\yest, diffuse a noxious and even deadly vapor; the hillocI;:s of sand which they alternately ra1se and scatter, are compared to the hillows of the ocean, and w1\olo caravans, whole armjes, 'have been lost and buried in the whirlwind. The C01111110n benefits of water are n11 object of desire and contest; and such is the scarcity üf wood, that some art is requisite to preserve and propngate the element of fire. Arabia is de'stitute of navigable rivcrs, which fertilize the soil, and convey its produce to the adjacent regions: the torrents that fall from the hills are imbibed by the thirsty earth: the rare and hardy plants, the tamarind OJ the acacia, that strike their roots into the clefts of the rocks.. are nourished by the dews of the night: a scanty supply of rain is collected in cisterns and aqueducts: the wells and springs are the secret treasure of the desert; and the pilgrim of l\Iecc t,5 after nmny a dry and sultry march, is disgusterl by the taste of the ,vaters which have rolled over a bed of s:'11 phur or salt. Such is the general and genuine picture of the climate of Arabia. The experience of evil enhances the value of any local or partial enjoyments. A shady grove, a green pasture, a stream of fresh water, are sufficient to attract a colony of seçentary Arabs to the fortunate spots which can afford food and refreshment to themselves and their cattle, and 'which encourage their indus ry in the cultivation of the paln1- tree llnd the vine. The high lands that border on the Indian Ocean are distinguished by thcir superior plenty of wood and water; the air is n101'e temperate, the fruits are more deli- cious, the animals and the human race n10l'e numerous: the fertility of the soil invites and rewards the toil of the husbanù- rnan; and the peculiar gifts of frankincense 6 and coffee have attractcù in diflèrent ages the merchants of the world. If it be cmnparcd with the rest of the peninsula, this sequestered region rnay truly deserve the appellation of the ,1 wppy ; and In the thirty dayf.j, or stations, between Cairo anrl Ic('ca, there fire fifteen de3tít tc f goad water. See the route of the lIacljees, ill :.:ihaw's Travels, p. 477. 6 The aromatics, especially the tllllS, or frankincense', of .Arabia, occupy the xiith book of Pliny. Our great poet tPm:adise Lost, 1. iv.) introduces, in a simile, the spicy OdOl'S that are blown by the ];orth- cast wind from the Saùæan coast: - _ )tany a 1eagl1e. Plea8ed with the f'r.tt..ru I !'I', .tlt, old 0('W111 8mlhHI (P.iin. JIist. X ntur. xii. 4: .) OF THE RO:\IAN El\IPIRE. 77 Lne splendid coloríng of fancy and fiction has been suggest('d OV contrast, and countenanced by distance. J t was for this e rthly paradise that Nature h3.d reserveù her choicest filYOrS and her most curious workman hip: the incompatible blessings of luxury and ir1nocence were ascribed to the natives: the soil was i1l1];regnated with gold 7 and gems, and oath the land and sea was taught to exhale the odors of arOlnatic sweets. This division o( the sandy, the stony, and the lwppy, so familiar to the Greeks and Latins, is unkno"\vn to the Arabians themselves; and it is singular enough, that a country, whose language an inhabit u}.ts have ever been the same, should scarcely retain a vestige of its ancient geography. The rnariiime districts of Bahrcln and Oman are opposite _o the realm of Persia. The kingdom of I T emen displays the limits, or at least the situation, of Arabia Felix: the name of lYeged is extended over the inland space; and the birth of l\lahomet has íHustratcd the province of Hejaz along the coast of the Red ea.ö The m asure of population is regulated by the means of subsistence; and the inhabitants of this vast peninsula nlight be outnumbered by the suqjects of a fertile and industrious province. Along the shores of the Persian Gulf, of the ocean, and even of the Red Sea, the Iclhyopltagi,!J or fi::;h- 7 Agatharddes affirms, that lumps of pure gold were found, from the sÜ:e of an oliye to that of a nut; that iron was twice, anù silver ten times, the value of gold, (de :Mad Rubro, p. 60.) These real or imaginary trea3urcs arc vani..;;;he L; and no gold mines are at present kUO"\Vll in Arabia, (Niebuhr, Df'scription, p. 124.). 8 Consult, peruse, and study the Specimen Historiæ A.rabum of Pocock, t Oxon. IG.jO, in 4to.) The thirty pages of text and version arc extracted from the Dyna<;ties of Gregory Abulpharagiu , 'which Pocock afterwarùs translated, (Oxon. 166:>, in 4to.;) the three hun- àreJ anù fifty-eight note;:; form a clas:iic and original work on t1:le A.ra"hian antiquities. .Arrian remarks the Icthyopha-:;i of the coa t of IIcje7., (Periplus laris }< rythr l'i, p. 12,) and beyond A.den, (p. 1.-5.) It seems probablE' that the shores of the Hed ea (in the lal"Mcst !'Pllse) ,.ere oe upicd by thcc:;e sava es in the time, perhap , of Cyrus j but I call hardly believp that any cannihals were left amon the :i.wages in the reign of Ju::tin- ian, (Prorop. de Bell. Persico 1. i. c. HL) · A brilliant passa e in the gcogrrideaux's Life of Iahomet, p. 5. Gagnier, Vie de Iahomet, tom. i. p. 72, 120, 1213, &c. l A l1ameles:; doctor (Udvcrsal JIist. vol. xx. octavo edition) has formally demonstrated the truth of Christianity by the independence of the Arabs. A critic, besides the exccptions of fãct, &light dispute thc meaning of the tc t, (Gen. xvi. 12,) the extent of the application, . l1d the foundation of the pecligree.* 22 It ,,'as subdue(l, A. D. 1173, by a brother of the great Saladin, who foun(led a dynasty of Curds or Ayoubites, (Gui;nes, JEst. des lInns, tam. i. p. 425. D'IIerbclot, p. 477.) 3 13y the lieutenant of Soliman I. (A. D. 1.338) and Sclim II., (1568.) Sec Cantemir's Rist. of the Othman Empire. p. 201, 221. The pacha, who l"esided at Saana, commanded twenty-vnc beys; but no l'eYcnUe was eyer remitted to the })ortc, (:\IarHigli, Stato 1\Iilitare dell Imperio Ottomanno, p. 1 4,) and the Turk::; were expelled about th year 1G30, (Xiebuhr, p. 167, 168.) 2 Of the Roman province, under th name of Arabia aI1d the thinl Palestine, thc rrincipal cities were 1308tra and Petra, which dated their a,'ra from the year 105, whcn they were subducd by Palma, a Jieutcllant of Trajall, (Dion. Cassius, 1. lxvüi.) Petra was thc carital of thc X abathæans; whof:c name is derived from thc cldest of th.c sons of I lllncl, (Gen. xxv. J 2, &c., with thc Commcntaries of J erom, !!t See m te 3 to chap. xhi. The lu.ttcr point 1-:; probably the It:>r'st con- testable of the three. - :\1. OF TIlE ROlUAN El\IPIRt:. 83 [smae,l and his sons rnust have pitched their te11ts in the face. of their brethren. Yet these exceptions are tenlpora:'y or local; the bqdy of the nation has scaped the yoke of the rnost powerful rnonarchies: the arms of Sesostris Rnd Cyrus, of Pompey and Tl.'ajau, could never achieve the conquest of j.-\rabia; the present sovereign of the Turks 2:5 may exercise a shadow of jurisdiction, but his pride is reduced to solicit the friendship of a people, whom it is dangerous to provoke, and fruitless to attack. The obvious causes of their freedom are inscribed ()u the character and country of the Arabs. I\Iany ages before l\Iahomet, G their intrepid va10r had been se- verely felt by their neighbors in oflènsive and defensive war. 'The patient and active virtues of a soldier are insensibly nursed in the habits and discipline of a pastoral lilè. ï he care of the sheep and c(ul1el.s is abandoned to the women of the tribe; but the martial youth, under the banner of the eUlir, is ever on horseback, and in the field, to practise the exercise of the bow, the javelin, and the cirneter. The long n1'emory of theil' independence is the finl1est pledge of its perpetuity and succeeding generations are .animated to prove their de- scent, and to maintain their inheritance. Th-eir dmnestic leuds are suspended on the approach of a common enemy; and in their last hostilIties against the Turks., the carayan of ]\Iecca was attacl{ed and pillaged by fourscore thousand of th confeneratcs. \Vhen they advance to battle, the hope of victory is in the front; in the rear, thc assurance of a retreat. Their Le Clerc, 2nd Calnwt.). Justiniau r.e'.inquish.cd a palm country of ten days' journey to the south of .LElah, (Procop. de Bell. Persico I. i. c. 19,) and the Romans maintained a centurion and a eustom-hou:-;e., (Arrian in Periplo :Maris Erythræi, p. 11, in Hudson, tom. i.,) at & .Jlacc (i.i.vy.lj 1':w.,,,j, Pagus Albus, Hawara) in the territory of l\{-cdìna, (D' Anvi.llc, r."moire SHl" l'Egypte., p. 24::3.) These I.ocal possessions, and some nav.al inro.a,(ls of Tra.ja.n, (Pel'ipL p. J", 1.5,) are lll.:lgRrned by histoI'v and medds into the HJJ1u.:m cona uest of Arabia. 25 Ñicbuhr (Description d l' ..Arabic, 1;' 302, 30; , 329-331) affordg the most reccnt and authentic intelligence of the Turkish empire in Arabh.t 26 Diodorus Siculus (tom. ii. 1. xix.. p. 39ß-393, edit. 'V sseling) has clearly exposed the freedom of the N abathæan Arabs, who resisted the arm:-3 of \.ntigonus aua his son. · On the ruins of rctr.a.., see the t.ranls of Messrs. Irby and Ianglf;e, t\nd of Leon de Laborde. -l\I. t Niebuhr's, notwithstanding the multitude of later travellers, main- tains its gl'01.md, a.s tltc cbssical work on Arabia. -1\1. &1 THE DECLINE A:ND FA.LL .)lonres and camels, who, in eight or ten days, can perform a }narch of four or five hundred miles, disappear before the conqueror; the secret wateT3 of the desert elude his search; and his victorious troops are consumed with thirst, hnnger. and fatigue, in the pursuit of an invisible foe, who SC01'n'5 his efforts, and safely reposes in the heart of the burning soli. 1ade.. The arms and deserts of the Beðoweens are not only 1he safeguards of their own freedom, but the barriers also of 1he happy Arabia, whose inhabitants, remote fronl war, are . nervated by the luxury of the soil and clin1ate. The legions of Augustus melted away in disease and lassitude; 21 and it j3 only by a naval power that the reduction of Yelnen has "been successfully attel-npted. \Vhen l\Iahomet ereded his 1101y standard,2B that kingdom was a province of the l:}ersian f rnpire; yet seven princes of the Hornerites still reigned in he mountains; and the vicegerent of Chosroes was tempted 10 forget his distant country and his unfortunate master. The historians of the age of Justinian represent the state of the 1ndependent Arnb , who were divideù by intcre3t or affection m the long quarrel of the East: the tribe of Gassan was al- Jowed to encamp on the Syrian territory: !lie princes of lIira. were pernlittcù to form a city about forty miles to the south- ward of the ruins of Babylon. Their ervice in the fieJd ,vas speedy and vigorous; but their friendship was venal, their faith inconstant, their enmity capricious: it was an easier task to excite than to disa.nn these roving barbarians; and, in the familial' intercourse of war, they learned to see, and to despise, the splenùid weakness both of Rome and of Persia. From l\Iecca to the Euphrates, the Arabian tl'ibcs 29 were con- 27 Stl'abo, 1. xvi. p. 1127-1129. Plin. IIist. Xatur. vi. 32. "Eliu3 Gallus laneled near Iedina, and marched ncar a thousand miles iuto the part of Yemen betwecn :l\Iareb and the Ocean. The non ante dcvictis Sabcæ rcgibl1s, (Od. i. :lU,) and the intacti Arabum the auri Od. iii. 24) of 11m'ace, atte:;t the virgin purity of AralJla. Sce the imperfect history of Y cmen in Pocock, Specimen, p. 5S -66, of lIira, p. 6G-74, of Gassan, p. 7J-78, as Ütr as it could Le known or pl"cservcd in the time of ignorance.. 29 The U <rocopius in a larger, scn:;c, has been derivcd, ridiculously, from Sarah, the ,....ife of \.braham, obscurely from the yil- lage of Saraka, <,UH lr(/.."Jt.,twìlJv;. Stephan. de lTrbilms,) more plau::;i- bly from the Arahic wontl, which signify a thievish character, or O,.irmtal situation, (Hottinger, Hi.;t. Oriental. 1. i. c. i. p. 7, 8. Pocock, Hpccimcn, p. :33, ; .j. Assemall. Bibliot. Orient. tom. iy. p. 507.) Yet the la.jt Had mO'5t popular o these etymologies is refuted oy Ptolemy, (Arabia, p. 2, 18, in Hudson, tom. iv.,) ",ho expres;ly remarks the we::;tern and southern position of the Saracens, then an ob:;curc triho on the borders of E. ypt. The appellation cannot therefore allude to any naÛona,l character; and, f'ince it was impo. eJ by stranger3, it must bC' found, not in the Arahic, but in a foreign langua2: e . * :11 Saraceni . . . . mulieres aiunt in eo;; rC;jllarC, (Expo::;itio totins }'Iundi, p. 3, in IIulbon. tom. iii.) The reign of Ia\"ia is Üunou3 in ceclesia::;t.ical story. Pocock, Specimen, p. (j9, 83. * Dr. Clarke, (Tnn-els, vol. ii. p. 491,) after expressing contemptuous pity for Gibbon's ignorance, derlv('s the word from Z:tra, Zaara, Sara, the De::;ert, whence Saraceni, the children of the Desert. De Marl: s adopts he derivation from Sarrik, a robber, (Hi t. des Arabcs, vol. i. 1'. 3 fi ,) St. l\Lutill from Scharkioun, or Sharkiin, "E.t.,tarn, \"01. xi. p. 5.1. - )1. VOL. v. fJ 86 THE DECLINE AND FALL fined, the :leSp.lt ]s open, and the tribes and families are held together by n 1TIutual and voluntary cOl11pact. The softer uatives of Yen1811 supported the pomp and l1mjesty of a 1110n- arch; but if he could not leave his palace without endanger- ing his life,32 the active powers of governIAent must have been devolved on his nobles and B1agistrates. The cities of l\-1ecca and l\fedina present, in the heart of Asia, the forn1, or rather the substance, of a comrnonwealth. The grandfather of 1\1a- hornet, and his lineal ancestors, appear in foreign and domestic transactions as the princes of their country; but they reigned, like Pericles at Athens, or the l\ledici at Florence, by the opinion of their wisdom and integrity; their influence was divided with their patr mony ; ançl the sceptre was transferreù from the uncles of the prophet. to a younger branch of the tribe of Koreish. On solemn occasions they convened the assembly of the people; and, since mankind must be either compelled or persuaded to obey, the use al}Ù reputation of oratory among the ancient Arabs is the clearest evidence of public freedom. 33 But their simple freedom was of a very different cast fr0111 the nice and artificial machinery of the Greek and Roman republics, in which each n1ember pos- sessed an undivided share of the civil and political )'ights of the community. In the 1110re simple state of the Arabs, tho nation is free, because each of her sons disdains a base sub- mission to the win of a master. His breast is fortified by the austere virtues of courage, patience, and sobriety' :he loye of iud{'pendcnce prompts hin1 to exercise the nabits of self- command; and the fear of dishonor guards him from the Dleaner arjprehension of pain, of danger, and of death. The gravity and firmness of the mind is conspicuous in llis outward demeanor; his speech is low, weighty, and concise; he is seJdom provoked to laughter; his only gesture is that or stroking his beard, the venerable symbol of rnanhood; and 32 )EiI: n;}J' l úalÎ. i()JJ' ,u); i= ;.{JÛJ' is the report of Agatharciùes, (de lari Rubro, p. G3, 6-1, in Hudson, tom. i.,) Diodorus Siculus, (tom. i. 1. Ei. c. 4.7, p. 21.:J,) and Strabo, (I. xvi. p.1l24.) Rut I much suspect that this is one of the popular tales, or extraordinary accident , which the credulity of travellers so often transforms into a fact, a cu':\tom, and a law. 33 1\ on gloriaba'htur antiquitus Arabes, nisi gladio, hospite, ct clu f}ltcntiâ, (Sephadius apud Pocock, Specimen, p. 161, 162.) This f;'ift of speeeh they f'h: .reà only with the Per ialls; and the sententiou Arahs would probably have di;"5dained the simple and sublime logic of Dcmo:;thcllC::;. OF THE RO)IXN E.ß'IPIRE. 87 the sense of his own importance teaches him to accost his ('quaIs without levity, and his superiors without awe. 34 The liberty of the Saracens survived their conquests: the first caliphs indulged the bold and familiar language of their sub- jects; they ascended the pulpit to persuade and edify the con- gregation; nor was it before the seat of em pire was removed to the Tigris, that the Abbasides adopted the proud and pon1p- ous ceremonial of the Persian and Byzantine courts. In the study of nations and men, we 11lay observe the causes that render then1 hostile or friendly to each other, that tend to nalTùW or enlarge, to n1011ifyor exasperate, the ocial charac- ter. The separation of the Arabs from the rest of mankind has accustOlned them to confound the ideas of stranger and enemy; and the poverty of the land has introduced a maxim of' jurispruùence, which they believe and practise to the pres- ent hour. They pretend, that, in the division of the earth, the rich and fertile climates were assigned to the other branches of the hmnan family; and that the posterity of the outlaw ISlnael 111ight recover, by fraud or force, the portion of inheritanèe of which he had .been unjustly deprived. Ac- cording to the remark of Pliny, the Arabian tribes are equally addicted to theft and n1erchal1dise ; the caravans that 'traver e the desert" are ransomed or pillaged; and their neighbors, since the remote times of Job and Sesostris,35 have been the victims of their rapacious spirit. If a Bcdoween discovers from afar a solitary traveller, he rides furiously against hin), crying, with a loud voice, "Undress thyself, thy aunt (my wife) is without a garment." A ready SUblllission entitles him to mercy; resistance will provoke the aggressor, and his own blood must expiate the blood which he presumes to shed 3.& I must remind the reader that D' .A.rvieux, D'IIerbclot, and :Siebuhr, represent, in the most lively colors, the manners and gOY- ernment of the Arabs, which are illufiitrated by many incidental pas- sages in the Life of :Mahomet.. 3ã Ob;-;erve the first chapter of J oh, and the long wall of 1500 stadia which Sesostric;; built from Pelusium to IIeliopolis, (Diodor. icul. tom. i. L i. p. 67.) Under the name of IIycsos, the shepherd kings, th(>). had formerly subdued Eóypt, plarsham, Canon. Chron. p. 98- 163, &c.)t . See, likewi5e, the curious romance of Antal', the most vivid and au- thentic picture of Arabian manners. -1\I. t T?is origin of the IIycsos, hough probable, is by no means so certain i there is som reason for supposing them Scythians. -1\1. 88 TIlE DECLXNE AND FALL in legitimate defence. A single robber, or a few associates, are branded with their genuine name; but the exploits of a numerous band assume the character of lawful and hO 10rablü war. The temper of a people thus an-ned against Inankind was ùoubly inflamed by the domestic license of rapine, mur- dcI', and revenge. In the constitution of Europe, the right of peace and war is now confined to a sn1all, and the actual exercise to a much smaller, list of respectahle potentates; but each Arab, with impunity and renown, might point his javelin against the life of his countryman. The union of the nation consisted only in a vague fésemblance of language and man- ners; and in each community, the jurisdiction of the magis- trate was mute and impotent. Of the time of ignorance which preceded l\filhomet, seventeen hundred battles 36 are recorded by tradition: hostility was imbittered with the ran- cor of civil faction; and the recital, in prose or verse, of au obsolete feud, was sufficient to rekindle the same passions among the descendants of the hostile tribes. In printte life every l1mn, at least every family, was the judge and avenger of his own cause. The nice sensibility of honor, which weighs the insult rather than the injury, sheds its deadly venom on the quarrels of the Arabs: the honor of their wo- men, and of their beards, is Inost easily wounded; an inde- cent action, a contemptuous word, can be expiated only by the blood of the offender; and such is their patient invet- eracy, that they expect whole months and years the opportu- nity of revenge. .A fine or cornpen ation for murder is familiar to the Darbarians of every age: but in Arabia the kinslnen of the dead are at liberty to accept the atonement, or to exer- cise with their own hands the law of reta)iation The refined malice of the J\..rabs refuses even the head of the 111urdej'er, substitutes an innocent for the guilty person, and transfers the penalty to the best and Inost eonsiderahle of the race by whom Lhey have been illjured. If he faUs by their hands, they are exposed, in tl 1 eir turn, to the danger of reprisals, the interest and principal of the bloody debt are accumulated: the indi- viduals of either family lead a life of malice and suspicion, 36 Or, according to another account, 1200, (D'Herbelot, Bibliothè'que Orientale, p. 75: the two historians who wrote of the Ayam at Arab, the hattIE''') of the Arabs, liyed in the 9th and 10th century. The famous war of Dahes and Gabrah W88 occasionecl by two horscs, lasted forty years, and ended in a pI"overb, (l)ocock, Specimcn, p. 48.) OF THE ROl\IAN E IPIRE. 89 and fifty years may sometimes elapse before the account of vengeance be finally settled. 37 This anguinary 5pirit, ignorant of pity or forgiveness, has been moderated, however, by the Il1axims of honor, which require in every private encounter ,",ome decent equality of age and strength, of numbers and weapons. l\n annual festival of two, perhaps of four, 1110nths, was observed by the Arabs before the time of l\Iahomet, dur- ing which theil: swords were religiously sheathed both in for- eign and domestic hostility; and this partial truce is more strongly expressive of the habits of anarchy and warfare. 38 But the spirit of rapine. and revenge was attempered by the Blilder influence of trade and literature. The solitary penin- sula is encOlnpas:;;ed by the most civilÍzed nations of the an- cient world; the merchant is the friend of mankind; and the annual caravans imported the í1rst seeds of knowledge and politeness into the cities, and even the camps of the desert. 1Vhatever 111ay be the pedigree of the Araus, theil' language is derived frolll. the s me origiual stock with the I-Iebrew, the Syriac, and the Chaldæan tongues; the independence of the tribes was marked by their peculiar dialects; J but each, h.fter their own, allowed a just preference to the pure and perspicuous idiom of lVlecca. In Arabia, as well as in Greece, the perfection of language outstripped the refinement of man- ners; and her speech could diver::;ify the fourscore names of honey, the two hundred of a serpent, the five hundred of a lion, the thousand of a sword, at a time when this copious dictionary was intrusted to the memory of all illiterate people. 37 The modern theory and practice of the Arabs in the revenge of murder are described by iebuhr, (Description, p. :W-31.) The harsher fC'ature of antiquity may be traced in the Koran, C'. , p. :l0, c. 17, p. 2; O, with ale' Ob:ìervations. 38 Procopius (de Bell. Per;:,i . 1. i. c. IG) places the lu'o 11 ")ly montns about the sumlller solstice. The _1 "abians ( on ecra fun/" month... of the year - the fir:-;t, seventh, eleventh. and twelftlÌ; anJ pretend, that in a lung- series of ages the truce was in.fringed only four OJ' f'i "- time...;, (t;ale's Preliminary Discourse, p. 1-17-1,')0, and X otes on thu ixth chapter of the Koran, p. 151, &c. Casiri, Dibliot. IIispano-.Arab- ica, tom. ii. p. 20, 21.) 39 Arrian, in the second century, remarks (in Periplo :\Iaris Ery- thræi, p. 12) the partbl or total difference of the dial ects of the' Arab::;. 'l'heir lauguage amI letters are copiously treated by Pocock, (Sreci- men, p. 150-1.:5 1,) Ca:-;iri, (Bibliot. HiHpano-.Arabica, tom. i. p. 1, 83, 29:l, tom. ü. p. 2.3, &c.,) and Niebuhr, (Description de l' Arabic, p. 72 -86.) I pass slightly; I am not fond of rCl)eating worùs like a pa.rrot. R* 90 THE DECLINE D FA:L 'fhe InonU111ents of the IIomerite were :nscribed with an ob- solete and mysterious character; but the Cufic letters, the groundwork of the present alphabet, were invented on the banks of the Euphrates; and the recent invention was taught at 1\Iecca by a stranger who settled in that city after the birth of l\IahOl11et. The arts of grammar, of metre, and of rhetoric, were unknown to the freeborn eloquence of the Arabians; but their penetration was sharp, their fancy luxuriant, their wit strong and sententious,40 and their l110re elaborate compositions were addressed with energy and effect to the n1inùs of their hearers. 'l'he genius and merit of a rising poet was celebrated by the applause of his o\vn and the kindred tribes. A solemn banquet was prepared, and a chorus of women, striking their tyn1bals, and displaying the pomp of their nuptials, sung in the presence of their sons and husbands the felicity of their native tribe; that a champion had now appeared tu vindicate their rights; that a herald had raised his voice to imn10rtalize their renown. The distant or hostile tribes resorted to an an- nual fair, which was abo1ished by the fanaticism of the first 1\los1e111s; a national assembly that loust have contributeJ to refine arid harmonize the Barbarians. Thirty days were em- ployed in the exchange, not only of corn and wine, but of eloquence and poetry. rfhe prize was disputed by. the gen- erous emulation of the bards; the victorious pcrfonoancc was deposited in the archiv s of princes and elnirs; and we may read in our own language, the seven original poems which were inscribed in letters of gold, and suspended in the temple of lVlecca. 41 The Arabian poets were the historians and 40 A 'familiar tale in Voltaire's Zadig (Ie Chien et Ie Cheval) is I'elated, to prove the natural sagacity of the Arabs, (D'Herbelot, Bib- liot. Orient. p. 120, 121. Gagnier, Vie de lahomet, tom. i. p. 37- "16:) but D' Arvieux, or rather La Roque, (Voyage de 1>alestine, p. 92,) denies the boasted superiority of the Betlowecns. The one hun- :!..!'cd and sixty-nine sentences of Ali t translated ùy Oc1dey, London, 1718) afford ajust and favorahle specimen of Arabian wit.* 41 Pocock (Specimen, p. 15t:;-lG1) and Casiri (Bibliot. Hi pano- Arabica, tom. i. p. 48, 84, &c., lID, tom. ii. p. 17, &c.) speak of the Arabian poets before :Mahomet: the seven poems of the Caaba have been published in English by Sir "\Villiam Jones; but his honorable mission to India has deprived us of his own notes, far more interesting than the obscure and obsolete text. . Compare the Arabic proverbs translated by BUi(ckhardt. London, 1830. -!II. OF THE ROl\IAN EmPIRE. 91 J110ralists of the age; and if they sympathized with the prcju- dicf's, they inspired and crowned the virtues, of their country- Inen. The indissoluble union of generosity and valor was the darling theIne of their song; and when they pointed their keenest satire against a despicable race, they affinned, in the bitterness of reproach, that the nlcn knew not how to give, nor the women to deny.42 The Salne hospitality, \vhich \vas practised by Abrah3.m, and celebrated by Homer, is still re- newed in the camps of the A.rab:;. The ferocious Bedowcens, the terror of the desert, embrace, without inquiry or hesitation, the stranger who dares to confide in their honor and to enter their tent. I-lis treatnlent is kind and respectful: he shares the wealth, or the poverty, of his host; and, after a needful repose, he is dismissed on his way, with thanks, with blessings, and perhaps with gifts. The heart and hand are Inore largely expanded by tho wants of a brother or a friend; but the heroic acts that could deserve the public applause, lnust have sur- passed the narrow measure of discretion and e perience. A dispute had arisen, who, anlong the citizens of :l\Iecca, was entitled to the prize of generosity; and a successive applica- tion was Inade to the three who were deemcd most worthy of the trial. Abdallah, the son of Abbas. had undertaken a dis- tant journey, and his foot was in thæ ..tirrup when he heard the voice of a suppliant, " 0 son of the uncle of the apostle of God, I am a t.'avelIer, and in distress!" He instantly dismou ted to present the pilgrilll with his camel, her rich caparison, and a purse of four thousand pieces of gold, ex- cepting only the sword, either for its intrinsic value, or as the gift of an honored kinsman. The servant of Kais inforn1ed the second suppliant that his mastcr was asleep: but he itn Inediately added, " IIere is a purse of seven thousand pieceR of gold, (it is aU we have in the house,) and here is an order, that will entitle yo to a camel and a slave;" the master, as soon as he awoke, praised and enfranchised his faithful stew- ard, with a gentie reproof, that by respecting his slumbers he h:ld stinted his bounty. Thc third of these herQ(.:ß, the blind Arabah, at the hour of prayer, was supporting his steps on the shoulders of two slaves. "Alas! "he replied," 111Y coffers are empty! but these you nlay sell; if you rcfuse, I renounce thenl. ' At these words, pushing away the youths, he groped filoug the wall with his staff. ,!'he character of I-IatcHl is the (2 alc's Preliminary Discourse, p. 29, 30. 92 THE DECLINE AND }'ALL perfect l110clel of Arabian virtue: 43 he was brave nd liberal an eloc}llCnt poet, and a snccessful robber; forty.camels were roasted at his hospitable feast; and at the prayer of a sup- pliant enemy he restored both the captives and the spoil. The freedOlTI of his countrymen disdained" the laws of justice; they proudly indulged the spontaneoLls in1pulse of pity and benevolence. The religion of the Arabs,44 as well as of the Indians, con- sisted in the worship of the sun, the n100n, and the fixed stars; a primitive anJ specious mode of superstition. The bright luminaries of the sky display the visible- image of a Deity: their number and distance convey to a philosophic, or even a vulga.r, eye, the idea of boundless space: the char- acter of eternity is Inarked on these solid globes, that seem incapable of corruption or decay: the regularity of their J.TIotions may be ascribed to a principle of reason or instinct; and their real, or imaginary, influence encourages the vain belief that the earth and its inhabitants are the object of their peculiar care. The science of astronomy was cultivated at Babylon; but the seh.ool of the Arabs was a clear firrri1imcnt and a naked plain. In their nocturnal rnarches, they steered by the guidance of the stars: their names, and order, and Jaily station, were familiar to the curiosity and devotion of the Bcdowef'n ; and he was taught by experience to divide, in twenty-eight parts, the zodiac of the moon, and to ble s the constellations who refreshed, with salutary rains, the thirst of the desert. The reign of the hcavenlj orbs could 110t be extended beyond the visible sphere; and some metaphysical powers were necessary to sustain the transmigration of souls and the rcsul"ìcction of bodies.: a caInel was left to perish on the grave, that he might serve his master in another life; anù 43 D'I-Ierhelot, Bihliot. Orient. p. 4.58. Gagnier, Yie de :!\lahomct, tom. iii. p. 118. Caab anù IIesnns (Pocock, SpeCill1C'Il, p. 4a, '.1ö, 4t)) werE likewise con8picuou for their liberality; and the latter is ele- gantly praised by an Arabian poet: "Vidcbis cum cum acces:5cris cxultantC'm, ac si dares illi quod ab illo pctis."* 44 \\'hatever can now be known of the idolatry of the ancient Arabians may be found in Pocock, (Specimen, p. 89-136, IG3, 16<1.) His profound erudition. is more clearly and concisely interpreted by Sale, (Preliminary Discourse, p. 14-24:;) and A8semanni (Bibliot. Orient. tom iy. 1).580-590) has added some valuable l'emarks. · See the translation of the amusing Persian romance of Hatim 'fai, by Duncan Forbes, Esq.) among the works published by the Oriental Transla. tion Fund. -1\1. OF THE ROMAN Ei\'IPIRE. . 93 the Invocation of departed spirits implies that they were still endowed witlr consciousness and power. I am ignorant, and I am careless, of the blind mythology of the Barb Hians; of the local deities, of the stars, the ai 1', and the earth, of their sex or titles, their attribu es or subordination. Each tribe, each family, each independent warrior, created anJ changed the rites and the object of his fantastic worship; but the nation, in C\Tery age, has bowed to the religion, as well as to the language, of .Mecca. The genuine antiquity of the CAABA ascends beyond the Christian æra; in describing the coast of the Red Sea, the Greek historian Diodorus 4;) has rpm:uked, between the Th3.1lludites and the Sabæans, a famous temple, whose superior sanctity was revered by all th A.rabians ; the linen or silken veil, which is annually renewed by the Turkish emperor, was first oflèred by a pious king of t-he 110. meritcs, who reigned seven hundred years before the time of l\lahomet. 4ò A tent, or a cavern, might suffice for the \\-01'- ship of the savages, but an edifice of stone and clay has been erected in its place; and the art and power of the monarchs of the East have been confined to the simplicity of the original model. 47 A spacious portico encloses the quadrangle of the 4;; r IEt,!")JI ;.qíwTaTII'V rð!.!1"TW TI.UcJy,UEJ'OJI v[rr; :-t"åJ'T(tJ'V) .At.! ßolJ' 7CHjITTÓ- H!!U1', (Diodor. Sic-ul. tom. i. 1. iii. p. 211.) The character and position are so correctly apposite, that I am sUl1Jrised how this curious passage should. have been read without notice or application. Yet this famous temple had been overlooked by ..Agatharcides, (de )Iari ltubro, p. õB, in Hudson, tom. i.,) whom Diodorus copies in the rest of the descrip- tion. 'Vas the Sicilian more knowing than the :Eg-yptian? Or wag the Caaba built between the Jears of Rome 6,'50 and 746, the dates of their respective histories? (.DodweU, in Dissert. ad tom. i. Hud3on, p. 7'2. }'abricius, Bibliot. Græc. tom. ii. p. 770.)* 46 Pocock, Specimen, p. GO, 61. l;'rom the death of :\Iahomet 'We ascenll to 68, from his birth to 129, Jears before the Chri tian æra. The veil or curtain, which is now of silk. and gold, 'was 110 more than a piece of E: yptian linen, (Abulfeda, in "ït. )lohammed. c. 6, p. 14..) 47 The original plan of the Caaba (which is servilely copied in alc, the U ni versal IIibtory, &c.) was a Turkish draught, which Ueland (de Heli ione Iohammedie(l, p. 1l3-1 3) has corrected and -:;xplaineù from the best authorities. For the description and legellli of the * :Mr. Forster (Geography of Arabia, yo1. ii. p. lIS, et seq.) has raised an objection, as I thinl{, fa.tal to this hypothesis of Gibbon. The temple, Eituatcd in the country of the Banizomeneis, was not between the Thamu ùites and the Sabæans, but higher up than the coast inhabited by the former. :Ur. Forster would place it as far north ag Moilah. I am not quite satisfied that this will agree with the whole description of DiùGorus. - 1\1. 18 t,;. 94 THE DECLINE AND FALL Caaba; a square chapel, twenty-four cubits long, t\\,-enty-thrce broad, and twenty-seven high: a door and a 1'\"indow adnlit the light; the double roof is supported by three pillars of wood; a spout (now of gold) discharges the rain-water, and the well Zemzen is protected by a dome frOln accidental pollution. The tribe of Koreish, by fraud and force, had acquired the custody of the Caaba: the sacerdotal office de- \'01 ved through four lineal descents to the grandfather of 1\10.- hornet; and the fan1ily of the Hashemites, frOln whence he sprung, was the Inost respectable and sacred in the eyes of their country.48 The precincts of 1\Iecca enjoyed the rights r- of sanctuary; and, in the last 1110nth of each year, the city and the temple vere crowded with a long train of pilgrims, who presented their vows and offerings in the house of God. The saIne rites which are now accomplished by the faithful l\lussulman, were invented and practised by the superstition of the idolaters. At an awful distance they cast away their garments: seven times, with hasty steps, they encircled the Caaba, and kissed the black stone: seven times they yisited and adored the adjacent mountains: seven times they threw stones into the valley of l\Iina; and the pilgrim3ge was achieved, as at the present hour, by a sacrifice of sheep and camels, and the burial of their hair and nails in the con- secrated ground. Each tribe either found or introduced in the Caaba their domestic worship: the temple was adorned, or defiled, with three hundred and sixty idols of men, eagles, lions, and antelopes; and most conspicuous was the statue of Rebal, of red agate, holding in his hand seven arrows, with- out heads or feathers, the instruments and symbols of profane divination. But this statue was a'monument of Syrian arts: the devotion of the ruder ages was content with a pillar or a tablet; and the rocks of the desert were hewn into gods or altars, in itnitation of the black stone'l9 of 1\lecca, which is Caaba, consult Pocock, (Specimen, p. 115-122,) the niblioth que Orientale of D'Hcrbclot, (Caaba, Hagir. Zcmzem, &c.,) and Sale, (Preliminary Discourse, p. 111-122.) 48 Cosa, the fifth ancestor of Mahomet, must h n.c usurred the Caaba A. D. 440; but the story is differently told by Jannabi, (Gag- nier, Vie de :Mahomet, tom. i. p. 65-69,) and by Abuli"cda, (ill Yit. !\Ioham. c. 6, p. 13.) 43 In the second century, laximus of T) re attributes to the Arabs the worship of a sto12c -' .A .'x.r-JLOl oi{JOVOl .UfJ" í,l To'a ò 01!}! olJlt, '1;, ð "yal/La ElðuJ" J.ieo ,; JI TET!!új'(m'oq, (Disscrt. viii. tom. i. p. J 42, cdit. OF THE nOl.I.A:N EI\IPIRE. 95 deeply tainted with the reproach of an idolatrous origin. From Japan to Peru, the use of sacrifice has universally pre vailed; and the votary has expressed his gratitude, or fear by destroying or consuming, in honor of the gods, the dearest and most precious of their gifts. The life of a man 50 is the rnost precious oblation to deprecate a public calamity: the altars of Phænicia and Egypt, of ROlne and Carthage, have been polluted with human gore: the cruel practice was long preserved among the Arabs; in the third century, a boy was . annually sacrificed by the tribe of the Dumatians ; 51; and a royal captive was piously slaughtered by the prince of the Saracens, the ally and soldier of the emperor Justinian.5 2 A parent who drags his son to the altar, exhibits the most pain- ful and sublime effort of fanaticism: the deeJ, or the inten- tion, was sanctified by the example of saints and heroes; and the father of 1\lahomet himself was devoted by a rash vow, and hardly ransomed for the equivalent of a hundred cmnels. In the time of ignorance, the Arabs, 1ike. the Jews and Egyptians, abstained from the taste of swine's flesh; 53 they Reiske ;) ançl the reproach is furiously reëchoed by the Christians. (Clemens Alex. in Protreptico, p. 40. Arnobius contra Gentes, 1. vi. p.246.) Yet these stone. were no other than the ßI lrv).a of Syria and Greece, so renowned in sacred and profane antiquity, (Euseb. })ræp. Evangel. 1. i. p. 37. IRl'shnm, Canon. Chron. p. 5 1-.j6.) õU The two horrid subjects of ) A 'ð!!o$I'aía and IIwðu$vaiu are accu- rately discussed by the learned Sir John l\larsham, (Canon. Chron. p. 7ü-78, 301-304.) Sanchoniatho derives the Phænician sacrifices ii'om the ex.ample of Chronus; but we are ignorant whether Chronus lived before, or after, ALrahmn, or indeed wheth('r he lived at all. 51 l(aT' h;'ç fXLlOTOJ' naiðu ;$VOJ', is the reproach of Porphyry; but he likewise imputes to the H.oman the same Larbarous custom, which, A. U. C. 657, had been finally aboJi hed. Dumætha, Daumat al Gendal, is noticed by Ptolemy (Tabui. p. 37, Arabia, p. 9-29) and _\bulfcda, (p. 57,) and may be found in D'.Anvillc's maps, in the miù- de:;ert between Chaibar and Tadmor. 52 Procopius, (de Dell. Persico, 1. i. c. 28,) E\"agrius, (1. vi. c. 21,) and Pocock, (Spccimen, 7>. 7'2, 8G,) attest the human sacrifice3 of the Arabs in the vith century. The ùanber anù escape of .Abdallah i3 a tradition rather than a fact, (Gagnier, Vie de laho net, tom. i. p. 8 -84:.) 53 Suillis carnibus abstinent, says Solinus, (Polyhistor. c. 33,) who copies Pliny (1. viii. c. (8) in the strange supposition, that hogs can- not live in Arabia. The Egyptians were actuated by a natural and superstitious horror for that unclean beast, (Marshåm, Canon. p. 205.) The olJ ..:\rabians likewise practised, post coitwn, the rite of ablution, (IleroJot. 1. i. c. 80.) which is sanctified by the l\Iahometan law, THE DECLINE AND FALL circ.tlTT"'Csed 54 theÌr children at the age of puberty: the same customs 1 without the censure or the precept of the Koran, hdve been silently transmitted to their posterity and proselytes. It has been sagaciously conjectured, that the artful legislator indulged the stubborn prejudices of his countrymen. It i9 more simple to believe that he adhered to the habits and opin- ions of his youth, \"ithout foreseeing that a practice congenia to the climate of l\Iccca Inight become useless or inconvenient on the banks of the Danube or the Volga. Al'aLia was free: the adjacent kingdoms' werç shaken by the storms of conquest and tyranny, and the persecuted sects fled to the happy land where they might profess what they thought, and practise what they professed. The yel igions of the Sa bians and l\Iagians, of the Jews and Christians, were disspn1inated from the Persian Gulf to \he Red Sea. In a I'cmote period of antiquity, Sabianism was diffused over Asia by the science of the ChaIdæans 55 ftnd the arms of the Assyrians. From the observations of two thousand years, the priests and astronomel'S of Baby- lon 3G deùuced the eternal laws of nature and providence. 'They adored the seven gods, or angels, who directed the course of the seven planets, and shed their irresistible influ- ence on the earth. The attributes of the seven planets, \vith . the twelve signs of the zodiac, and the twenty-four constella- tions of the northern and southern hemisphere, were repre- sented by images and talismans; the seven days of the week were dedicated to their respective deities; the Sabians prayed thrice each day; and the temple of the rnoon at llaran was (Reland, p. 75, &e., Chardin, or rather the lilollall, of Shah Abbas, tom. iv. p. 71, &c.) ;;4 The Iahometan doctors arc not fond of the subject; Tet they holcl ci.rcumcisi.on nece:-;sary to salvation, and even pretend that .Mahomet was miraculously born 'without a foreskin, (Pocock, Speci- men, p. :nO, 3:!O. bale's l reliminary Discourse, p. 106, 107.) 55 Vioc1orus Sicnlns (tom. i. 1. ii. p. 112-1-!5) ha5 cast on their reli- gion the curious but superficia.l glance of a Greek.. Their astronomy would be far more yaluable: they had looked through the telef'cope of reason, since they could doubt whether the snn were in the num- ber of the l'lanett; or of the fixed stars. 56 SimpliclUs, ("\-vho quotes Po:rphyr T,) de Cælo, 1. ii. com. xld. ). 123, lin. 1H, apud )'Iarsham, Canon. Chron. p. 4 ï 4, who doubts the fact, because it i.. advcrse to his Rystems. The earliest date of the Chaldæan observations is the year 2234 before Christ. After the con- quc;:.t of BabJ"loa by Alexmider, they were communicated, at the l'e luest of ..\ristotle, to the astronomer lIipparchns. \Vhat a moment in the annals of i>cience ! ./ OF THE ROl\L1 E:\IPIRE. 97 tt 1C'l"ln of their pilgrimage. 57 But the flexible genius of th .í fa.ith was al ways ready either to teach or to learn: in the .ral1ition of the creation, the deluge, and the patriarchs, thc} hcld a singular agreCl11ent with their Jewish captives; they Rppealed to the secret books of Adan1, Seth, and Enoch; and a slight infusion of the gospel has transformed the last re111nant of the Polytheists into tlw Christians of St. John, in the territory of B:1ssora. 58 The altars of Babylon were over- turned by the l\Iagians; but the injuries of the Sabians were- revenged by the sword of Alexander; Persia groaned flJ.>ove five hundred years under a foreign yoke; and the purest dis- ciples of Z Jrüaster escaped from the contagion of idolatry, and breathed with their adversaries the freedom of the des- ert. 5 c} Seven hundred years before the death of l\fahomet, the Jews WelC settled in Arabia; and a far greater multitude was expelled fron1 the IIoIy Land in the wars of Titus and I-Iadrian. The iì1l ustrious exiles aspired to liberty and power: they erected syr.agogues "in the cities, and castles in the wil- derness, and their Gentile converts were confounded with the children of Israel, whOln they resmnbled in the outward mark of circumcision. The Christian missionaries were still more active and successful: the Catholics asserted theil' universal reign; the sects whOln they oppressed, successively retired beyond the lin1its of the Roman empire; the l\farcionites and i\1anichæans dispersed their.fantastic opinions and apocryphal gospels; the churches of Yemen, and the princes of Hira and 57 Pocock, (Specimen. p. 138-146,) Hottinger, (IIist. Orient. p. 162 -203,) Hyde, (de }{eli ione Yet. Persarum, p. 124, 128, &c.,) D'Her- belot, (Sabi, p. 7:2." 7:W,) and Sale, (Preliminary Discourse, p. 14, 15,) rather excite than gratify our curiosity; and the last of these writers confounùs Sahianism with the primitive religion of the Arabs. :>8 D' _\.nville (l'Euphrate et Ie Ti re, p. 130-137) will fix the po:::ition of these ambigu.ouq Clu-istians; Assemanllus (Bibliot. Oriental. tom. Ï\p. p. 607-Gl!) may explain their ten( ts. But it is a flippery ta:sk to a...certaia the creer! of an ignorant people, afraid and ashamed to disclo;-;e thcir secret traditions.. !,9 The )Iagi were tixed in the province of Bahrein, (Gagnier, Vie de :l\Iahomet, tom. iii. p. 114,) and mingled with the olcl Arabians, (Pocock, Bpecimcn, p. 146-150.) · The Codex "Xasiræm, their sacred book, has been puLlished by Nor- berg, whose rcscarches contain dmost all that is known of this singular pcople. But their origin is almost as obscure as ever: i ancient, their creed has been so corrupted with mysticism and l\'Iahometanisl1l, that its Dative lineaments arc ,"cry indistin('t.-.M. VOL. v. 9 9.8 THE DECLINE AND FALL Gassnn, were instructed in a purer creed by the Jacobite and Nestorian bishops.6 o The liberty of choice was presented to the tribes: each Arab was free to elect or to CODlpose his private religion: and the rude superstition of his house was mingled with the sublime theology of saints and philos- ophers. A fundaIoental article of faith was inculcated by the consent of the learned strangers; the existence of one su- prelne God, who is exalted above the powers of heaven and earth, but who has often revealed hinlself to nlankind by the 111inistry of bis angels and prophets, and whose grace 01" justice has interrupted, by seasonable lniracles, the order of nature. 'The n108t rational of the Arabs acknowledged his power, though they neglected ]1Ïs ,vorship ; Gl and it was habit rather than conviction that still attached them to the relics of idolatry. The Jews and Christians were' the people of the Book; the Bible was already translated into the Arabic Ian- guage,62 and the volume of the Old Testament was accepted by the concord of t}wse implacable enemies. In tlle story of the I-Iebl"ew patriarchs, the Arabs were pleased to discover the fathers of their nation. They applauded the birth and promises of Isrnae1 ; revered the faidl and virtue of Abraham; traced his pedigree and their own to the creation of the first man, and imbibed, with equal credulity, the prodigies of the holy text, and the d:rearns and traditions of the Jewish rabbis. The base anù plebeian origin of l\Iahomet is an unskilful calumny of the Christians,63 who exalt instead of degrading 60 The state of the Jews and Christians in Arabia is described by Pocock from Share tani, &c., (S]Jecimen, p. GO, 13-1, &c.,) Hottin- ger, (Hist. Ol"Ïent. p. 212-238,) D'Herbelot, (Bibliot. Orient. p. 474 -476,) Basnage, (Rist. des Juifs, tom. vii. 'P' 185, tom. viii. p. 280,) and Sale, (Preliminary Discourse, p. 22, &c., 33, &c.) 61 In their offerings, it was a maxim to defraud God for the profìt of the idol, not a. more potent, but a more irritable, patron, (Pocock, Specimen, p. 108, 109.) 6 Our versions now extant, whether Jewish or Christian, appear more recent than the Koran; but the existence of a prior translation may be fairly inferred, - 1. l"rom the IJerpetual practice of the synagogue of expounùing the Hebrew le on by a paraphrase in the vuigar tongue of the country; 2. From the analogy of the Armenian, PerEian, .ir:thiopic ver:-;ion:;, expressly quoted by the fathers of the rli'th century, who a<; ert that the Scriptures were translated into aLE the Barbaric languages, C\Valton, Prolegomena ad 13iblia. Polygìot.. p. 31, g3-g7. ímon, Rist. Critique du V. et du N. Testament, tom. i. p. 1 gO, 181, 2R2-286, 293, 305, 30G, tom. iv. p. 206.) ,., In co cOl1veniunt omnes, ut pleboio vilique genere ortum. 21;('... OF THE r.Ol\I.Al\ m\IPIRE. 99 the merit of their adversary. Iris ùescent [rmn Ismacl was a uQtional privilege or fahle; hut if the first steps of the pedi- gree 6.1 are dark and doubtful, he could produce rnany gener- [ltions of pL1n and genuine nobility: he sprung from the tribe of Koreish and the family of IIashcln, the 1110st illustrious of the A.rabs, the princes of :Mecca, and .the hereditary guardians of the Caaha. The grandfather of IHahomet was i\.Lùol l\Io- taUeb, the son of Hashem, a wealthy and generous cilizen, who relieved the distress of falninc with the supplies of eom- n1erce. .Mecca, which had been fcd by the liberality uf the father, was saved by the courage of the son. The kingdolll of Yemen was subject to the Christian princes of A.byssinia; their vass3.1 Abrahah was provuked by an insult to avenge the honor of the cr0S3; and the hply city was invested by a train of eleph3.uts and an. anny of Africans. A treaty was pro- posed; and, in thc first audience, the granùfather of l\b.h01TIet demanded the restitution of his cattle. "A.nd why," said Abrah h, " do you not rather implore my clemency ill fayor of yonI' temple, which I have threatened to destroy?" "Be- cause," replied the intrepid chief," the cattle is my own; the Caaba belongs to the gods, and t!tey w.ill defend their hOllse . fl'om injùry and sacrilege." The want of provisions, or the valor of the Koreis!l, compelled the .A byssinians to a. di 6ì'accful retreat: their discomfiture has been adorned with a n1Îr...lCulous flight of birùs, who showered down stones on the heads of the infidels; and the deliverance was long COIn- mel110rated by the æra of the elephant,Gj The glory of .Abdol (Hottinger, lIist. Orient. p. 13G.) Yet Theophánes, the most ancient of thc Greeks, and thc father of many a lie, confesses that :Mahomet was of the rac of Ismad, Èy. 111å.; rEl'ly.(;IC" n;; lfvJ.17ç, (Chronograph. p. 277.) 64 Abulfeùa (in Vito :Mohammed. c. 1. 2) and GaCTllicr (Yie de :\Iahomct, pJ 2':;-97) clf>sci.'ibc the popular and approyc(tgcllcalogy of the prophet. At Iccca, I would not dispute its authentidty: at ] lausanne, I v. ill ycnture to observc, 1. '1ïtLlt from 13mael to )130- homet, a pcriod of 2500 year::;, they reckon thirty, instead of scventy- !ive, gen.erations; 2. 1ïuá thè modern DcdoWCE'IlS are Îfrnorant of their history, and carelcs<; of their pcdigree, (Y oyaóc dc D' _\.l"viel1 x. p. 100, 103.). 6':> The seed of this history, or fablc, is contained iü the cvth chap- ter of the Koran; aud Gagnier (ill Præfat. ad yit. Ioham. p. ld, << The most orthodox Mahomebns only reckon b ('k the ancestry of the prophet for twenty g('nerations, tn Arln:m. 'Veil, :\Loha"1)Hll'rl cil'l" PrClphcL, 11. 1 -:\1. l !!j. - 100 TIrE DEC'LIN:R AND FA LI. l\Iotal1eb was crowned ,vith dOl11estic happiness; his life was prolonged to the age of one hundred and ten years; and he beCall1e the father of six daughters and thirteen sons. f-lis best bc10ved A bdallah was the nlost IJeautiful nnd modest of the Arabian youth; and in the fi rst night, ,\'hen he consuro- Inatpd his marriage with Amina,t of thc noble race of the Zahrites, tvj,'O hundred virgins arc said to have. expired c f jealousy and despair. 1\1aho1110t, or l110re properly I\Iohan:- med, the only son of Abdallah and Amina, was born at l\Iecca, four years after the death of Justinian, and two months after the defeat of the Aby sinians,66 whose victory would have introduced into the Caaba the relIgion of the Christians. In his early infancy,_ he was deprived of his father, his mother, & .) has tranF;latccl the hÜ;torical narrm:ive of Abulfec1a, which may be illu<;;trated from D'Herbelot (Bibliot. Orientale, p. 12) and Pocock, (Specimen, 'P. ô4.) Prideaux (Life of lahom('t, p. 48) calls it a lie of the coinage of .Mahomet; but Sal(', (Koran, p. 501-.103,) who is half a Iussulman, attacks the inconsi tent faith of the Doctor iOT believ- ing the miracles of the Delphic Apollo. :ßIaracci (Alcoran tom. Í. part ü. p. 11, tom. ii. p. 823) ascribes the miracle to the devil, and extorts from the :Mahometaus the confession, that God would not have defended against the Christians the idols of t]ie Caaba. * 66 The afe5t æras of Abulfeda, (in Yit. c. i. p. :) of Alex.autler, or the Greeks, 832; of TIocht Kaser, or XabQuassar, 1315, elually lead us to the year .5G9. The old Arabian calendar is too dark and Tilwertain to sUI;port the llenedictines, (Art do Yeritier les Dates, p. 1.5,) ,,:}10, from the day of the month and week, deùuce a new mode of calculatioll, and remove the birth of ?tlahomet to t!w year of Christ 570, the 10th of X ovembér. Yet this clate wor!.lù a rce with the year 882 of the Grf'eks, which is assigned by Elmaeill (lIist. Saracen. p. 6) and Abulpharagius, (Dyna.st. p. 101, and Errata., Pocock's version.) 'Vh.ilc we refine our chronology, it is possible tha.t the illiteratë pro;)het was ignorant of his o.Wll age.; . Dr. \V cil sa,'s that the small-pox: broke out in the army of Abrahah, but he does not ivc his authority, }>. 10. - 1\1. 181.:,. t Amina, or Emina, was of Jewish birth. V. Hammer, Geschichte (ler Assa<;s. p. 10. -:\1. t The ùate of the birth of ;.Ia.homet is not yet fi-"{ed with precision. It is only known from Orieut..\l authors tlut he W.tS born on a )lonùay, the 10th Heb}' 1st, the third muuth of the Mahomet 1.11 year; the year 40 or 42 of Cho:;rocs :i,,"nshirvan, king of P rsia; the year 831 of the Sclcucidan int UH- (lec defl h tween the years .'}i3J, 5ïO, õ71, of J. C. See the )lcmoir of M. Silv. de Sac)", on (livers. cyent<; in th. hi<;t02 Y_ of;- e A!ab b e re :\ aho let, I?m. Acaù. des Inscnpt. vol. xhn. p. u2" 00... St. ...la-ltm, ol. Xl. p. 60. -l\I. ])1'. \Veil decidc" on A. D. 571. :Mar.omet died in 632. ag<<.>d 63; but the AT bs reckoned hi<\ life hy lunar years wtieh ,.p,lu('es his life np?.rlv to GI, tp 1.) --)1 131,) OF THE ROl\IAN El\IPIRE. 101 and his grandfather; his uncles were strong and numerous, and, in the dívision of the inheritance, the orphan's share was reùuced to five camels ahd an Æthionian maid-servant. At hOlne anù abroad, in peace and wal , Abu Taleb, the most re pectable of his uncles, was the guide and guardian of his youth; in his twenty-fifth year, he entered into the service of Cadijah, a rich and noble widow of .r,Iecca, who soon rewardt'd his fidelity with the gift of her hand and fortune. rl'he marriage contract, in the simple style of antiquity, recites the mutual love of l\Iahomet and Cadijah; deseribes him as the most accomplished of the tribe of. Koreish; and stipulates a dowry of twelve ounces of gold and twenty camels, which was supplied by the liberality of his uncle.6 7 By this alliance: the son of .Abdallah was restored to the s!aíÏon of his ances- tors; and the judicious rnatron was content .with his domestic virtues, till, in the fortieth ye:lr of his age,68 he assumed îhe t tle of a prophet, auJ proclaimed the religion of the Koran. According to the tradition of his companions, l\Iahùmet G!} was distinguished by the beauty of his person, an outward gift which is sel om despised, except by those to whom it has 67 I copy the honorable testimony of Abu THleb to his family and nephew. Laus Dei, qui nos a stirpe A.brahami et semine lsmacli constituit, et nobis region em f'acram dedit, et nos judices hominibus statuit. Porro MohammeJ filius Abdollahi nepotis mei (nepos melt ) quo cum ex æquo librabitur e Koraishiclis quispiam cui non præpon- deraturu:{ est, bonitate et excellentiâ, et intellectu et glorÏrÎ., et acumine, etsi Ol)um inops fucrit, (et certe opes umbra transiens sunt et deposi- tum quod redJ.i debet,) de..;iderio Chadijæ filim Chowailedi tenetur, et ilia vi.::is im. ipsius, quicquid autem dotis vice petieritis, e o in me suscipiam, (Pocock, Specimen, e septimâ parte libri Ebn Hamduni.) 611 The private life of :i\Iahomet, from hiq birth to his mission, is preserved by ....\.bulfeJa, (in Vito e. 3-7,) ancl the Arabian writers of g.:nuine or apocryphal note, who are alleged by Hottinger, (lIist. Orient. p. :W1-:!11,) laracci, (tom. i. p. 10-1-1,) and Gabnier, (Vie de ,lahomet, tom. i. p. 97-131.) 69 Abltlfcda, in Vito c. lxv. lx.vi. Gagnier, Vie de )lahomet, tom. iii. p. 272-28Ç!. The be.-lt traditions of the pcrson and conver:5ation of the l'rophet are dcriveJ ti"om Ayesha, Ali, and Abu IIoraira, (Ga;;nier, tmll. ii. p. 267. Ockley's Hist. of the f3aracens, vol. ii. p. 11D,) 1.1=- named the }'ather of a Cat, who died in the :year 59 of the IIcgira.iJI. · Compare, likewise, the new Life of ::\Iahomet (:Mohammed. der Prophet) by Dr. 'Veil, (Stuttgart, 1843.) Dr. \Veil has a new tradition, that l\Lt- hornet wa.s at one time a shepherd. 'fhil) assimilation to the life of Moses, in:-.tead oî giving probability to the story, as Dr. 'Veil suggest5, makes it luorc smpiciou:i. K utE' p. 31. - :\1. 1845. . 9* 102 'lIIE DECLINE A: D FALL b(,E'l1 refused. Before he spoke, the orator engaged on hig side the uf!ections of a public or private audience. They applauded his commanding presence, his majestic aspcct, his pierc]ng eye, his gracious smile, his flo\ving beard his counte- nance îhat painted every sensation of the soul, and his ges- tu I'PS that enforeed each expression of the tongue. In the fiuniliar offices of life he scrupulously adhered to the grave and ceremonious I)oliteness of his country: his respectful nttpntion to the rich and pOYicrful was dignified by his conde- scension and affability to the poorest citizens of l\lecca: the frankness of his manner concealed the artifice of his views ; and the habits of courtesy \vere inlputed to personal friendship or universal benevolence. lIis D1emory was capacious and retentive; his wit easy and social; bis imagination sublime; his judgment clear, rapid, and decisive. He possesscd the courage both of thought and action; and, although his designs might gradually expand with hi::; success, the first idea which he entertained of his divine mis ion bears the stamp of an original and superior genius. The son of Abdallah was educated in the bosom of the noblest race, in the use of the purest dialect of j\rabia; and the fluency of his speech was corr('cted and enhanced by the pra.ctice of discreet and sea- sonable silence. \Yith these powers or eloquence, l\lahornet was an illiterate Barbarian: his you h had never been in- structed in the arts of reaäing and writing; 70 the con1mon 70 Those who believe that Iahomet could read or write are incapa- hIe of reading what is written, with another pen, in the Suras, 01' chapters of the Koran, vii. xxix. xcvi. These texts, and the tradition of the Sonna, are admitted, without doubt, by Abulfeda, (in Vit. c. yii.,) Gagnier, eX ot. ad Abulfed. p. I,'),) Pocock, (Spedmen, p. 1.51,) Rclalld, (de Religione Iohammedicâ, p. 236,) a ld Sale, (Preliminary Discour3e, p. 42.) ::\lr. 'Yhite, almo<;t alone, denies the ignorance, to accuse the imposture, of the prophet. His arguments are far from satisfactory. Two short trading journeys to the fairs of Syria were surely not sufliciellt to infuse a !:;cience so rare mnong the citizens of Iecca: it was not in the cool, deliberate act of treaty, that IaholUet would have dropped the maf'k; nor can any conclusion be drawn from tt.e word., of disca::-;e and delirium. The Zette)'eel youth, before he a.,- pirecl to the prophetic character, mU'3t haye often exerci<;ed, in priyate life, the arts of readi 1 and writing; and his fir::.it converts, of hi'i own fmnily, would lUlYe been the firi5t to detect nnd upbrnid hi , scandalous hypoc1isy, ('Vhite's Sermons, p. 203, 201, Xotes, p. xxxyi.-xxxviü.) . Sihestcr de Sa.ry (Acadcm. des In cript. I. p. 2 ,5) has ob:3crycd tha the text of the xc\'ith Sura impli('s that ::Ylc\homet coulcl read; the tradi- OF THE ROI\IAN E1\IPIRE. 103 ignorance exe1l1ptcd him from shame or reproach, but he was reduced to a na.rrow circle of existence, and deprived of thuse faithful mirrors, which reflect to our l1'\ind the minds oÌ sages and hcroes Yet the' book of nature and of nlan was open to his view; and some fancy has been io.dulged in the politil'2.al nnd. philosophical obs-crvations which are ascribed to the ..i\.rabian. -travf!-lícr. 7i He compares the nati011s and the reli- gions of the earth, discov rs the weakness of th2 Persian and Roman monarchÿ.. s; beholds, with pity and indignati{?u, the degeneracy Gf the times; and re olves to 'tinite nder one God and one kin thc invincible spirit and prilnitive virtues of the Arabs. Ollf luore accurate inquiry will suggest, tlm.t, instead of visiting the courts, tIre camps, the ternplcs., of the East, the two jou.rneys of Mahomet into Syria were confined to the fairs of Bostra and Damascu.s; that he was only thirteen years of age when he accompanied the caravaa Qf his unclB , and that his duty compelled hiul to l"etlUll as soon as h.c had disposed of the merchandise of Ca.dijah. In these hasty and superficial excursions, the eye of genius might òiS0ern some objectcl invisible to his g osser companions some seeds of knowledge might he cast upon a fruitful soil bet his igno. rance of the Syriac la.nguage must have checked his curiosity; and I cannot perceive, in the lif-e or writings of l\Iahomet, that his prospect was far extended beyond the lì-rnits 'Of the Ara. bian world. From every regiersia is pr-ob&bly 1't fiction, nor can I traæ the origin of Jus exclamation, ,,, Les Greer.; sout pour- tant ùcs hommes." The two SyÚ n jou.rncys m.rc cxp cssed by almost ;>;11 the Arabian writers, both iahomct:u1S lolilld Christians, (G-.a'''nicl' ad AbuUèd. p. 10.) 0 tion .alone denies it, and., according to Dt". 'Veil, (p. 46,) there is another readmg of the tradition, that '"' he could not :read well." Dr. 'Veil is not quite öO successful in eXIJI.a.ining away Sura xxix. It means, he thinks, hat he h.,..l not read au\' books, from which. he could have borrowed.- )1. 181,) . 104 THE DECLII\E AND FALL qnd the Syrian Dlonk, whom they accuse of lending their secret aid to the composition of the Koran. 72 Conversation enriches the unders anding, but solitu e is the school of genius; Dnd the uniformity of a work denotes the hand of a single al"tist. From his earliest youth l\Iahomet was addicted to religious contemplation; each -year, during the month of Ramadan, he withdrew from the world) and from the arms of Cadijah: in the cave of Hera, three miles fronl l\tecca,73 he consulted the spirit of fraud or enthusiasm, whose abode is n )t in the heavens, but in the Inind of the prophet. The (:.tith which, under the name of Islam, be preached to his t'<1 mily and nation, is compounded of an eternal truth, and a ra:ce Hary fiction, THAT THERE IS OI\LY û:iXE Gon, AND THAT MAHOl\IET IS THE APOSTLE OF GOD. It is th boast of the Jewish apologists, that while the learned nations of antiquity were deluded by the fables of polytheism, d:eir simple ancestors of Palestine preserved the }{nowledgc and worship of the true God. The moral attributes of Jehovah may not easily be reconciled wÏth the standard of 1l1.1'1nan vir- tue: his metaphysical qualities are darkly expressed; but each pllge of the Pentateuch and the Prophets is an evidence of his powcr: the unity of his namc is inscribed on the first table of the Jaw; and his sanctuary was never defileJ by any visible imag.e of the invisible essence. After the ruin of the temple, tl:e faith of the Hcbrew exiles was purified, fixed, and en- lightened, by the spiritual devotion of the synagogue; and the authority of :lUahomet will not justify his perpetuall'eproach, that the Jews of l\Iecca or l\:1edina adored Ezra as the son of GOd. 74 But the children of Israel had ceased to be a people; 12 I am not at lcisure to pur;:;l1.e the fables or conjectures 1,.hich }wme the strange-rs accused or suspected by the infidels of :Mecca, \ 1' oran, c. 16, p. 223, c. 35, p. 297, -with Sale's Remarks. Prideaux's I,ife of ::\Iahomet, p. 22- 7. Gagnier, Xot. ad Abulfed. p. 11, 74. )J aracei, tom. ii. p. 40.0.) Even Prideu.'.1x has observed, that the tl'i\.11Sactioll must have been sccn;t, and that the sccne lay in the heart of Arabia. 73 Abulfcrla in Vito c. 7, p. 15. Gagnier, tom. i. p. 133, 1:1.j. The ituation of .Mount !IN'a is n marked by Abulfeda, (Geograph. ..:-\.rab.. II.4.) Yct :Mahomet had neycr read of the cave of Egcria, ubinoc- turnæ Numa constituebat amicæ, of the Idæall .Mount, wherc Iino:!i ("ollverscù "ith Jove, &.c. 74 Koran, c. !), p. 153. Al Bcidawi, and the other commcntators qaotcd by Sale, adherc to the charge; but I do not underí'talld that it is colored by the most ob CUl"e or absurd tradition of the Ta111ludi:;t OF THE ROJLL'J EmPIRE. ]05 and the religions of the world were guilty, at least in the eyes of the prophet, of giving sons, or daughters, or companions, to the supreme God. In the rude idolatry of the Arabs, the crime is. manifest :lnd audacious: the Sabians are poorly ex- cLlsed hy the p,'eëminence of the first planet, or intelligence, in t!leir ce1es ial hierårehy; and in the l\Iagian system the conniet of the two principles betrays the imperfection of the c O :1queror. The Christians of the seventh century had insen- sib!y relapsed into a semblance of Paganism: their public anù privåte vows were addressed to the relics and images that dis- gnlcpd the temples of the East: the throne of the Almighty was darkened by a cloud of martyrs, and saints, and angds, the o jeets of popuìar ,'cneration; and the Collyridian heretics, who nourished in the fruitful soil of Arabia, invested the Vir- gin l\Iary -with the name and hon'Ors of a goddess. í5 The mysterips of the Trinity and Incarnation appcar to contradict the p,'inciple of the divine unity. In their obvious sen e, th('y introduce three equal deities, and transform the man Jesus into the su hstance of the Son of God:.'ì G an orthodox com- mentary will atisfy only a believing Inind: intemperate curiosity and zpal had torn the veil of the s ncttlary; an(l each of the Oriental sects was eager to confp.5s that all, ex' cPpt themselves, desen'ed the reproach of idolatry a 1(1 aJ01y.. theism. The creed of Iahemet is free from sus.piciou 01' ambiguity; and the Koran is a glorious testimony to the unity of God. The prophet of l\Iecca rejected the wur hip of idols and men, of stars and planets, on the rational principle that whatever l'ises must set, that whatever is born must die, that 75 Hottinger, lEst. Orient. p. 22.3-228. The Collyridiall heresy WH:3 earried fi-om Thra'Ce to Arabia by some women, and the llame was bon'owed from the Y.vÚI !!,;, or cake, "hich they offered to the goddess. This example, that of Beryllus bi:;hop of noatra, (Euseb. lEst. EeclC'S. 1. \'i. c. 3a,) and sevcral others, may excuse the re1'roach. .\rabia ha're:-('fr)n f ra '(. 76 The thrf e gCd.3 in the Koran (c. 4, p. 81, c. 5, p. !)2) are Ouviouslv directed a inst 0.1.1' Catholic I:1y;.;terv: but the Arabic commcnt:ltor:" undC'rstan(l them of the Fa.thc"'r, tl{e Son, and the Yir.r n I llT , an 1"1 w hereti"al Trinity, mailltaineu, a"5 it i,:; said, bV" some Barbarialls at the Council of ice, lEutych. .\..nna1. tom. i. p. 410.) nut the ex:i:;tence of he JJI((,.ian t,Js i dcnicd by the candid Beau::->obre, (lIi t. de .Jlani- ('hel:..ne, tom. 1. p. .53:t;) and he derives the mi::,t lke Ï1mn the v.ord Roualt, the H()ly G host, which in some Oriental ton rr U,,--3 is of the feminine gcnd r, and is tiguratiyely styleJ tll(' mnthC'r of Chri:;t i1) the Uo:-.pd of the {azarenes. 106 TIlE D.ECLIKE A D FALL whate\rer is corruptible must decay and perisl,.ì7 In the .Au. thor of the universe, his rational enthusiasn1 confessed and ad.ored all infinite and eternal being, without form or place, without issuc or similitude, present to our 1110st secret thoughts, existing by the nccessity of his own nature, and deriving from him:-'clf all rno1'al and intellectual perfection. These sublime truths, thus announced in the language of the prophet,ï8 1J'e firmly held by his disciples, and defined with metaphysical precision by the interpreters of the Koran. A philosophic theist n1ight subscribe the popular creed of the !"lahometans ; 79 a creed too sublime, perhaps, for our present faculties. \Yhat ol)ject remains for the fancy, or even the understanding, when Y:e have abstracted from the unknown substance all ideas of time llnrl space, of n10t10n élnd matter, of sensation and reflec- tion 1 'rhe first principle of reason and revelatron was con. 1ìrmed by the \-oice of .Mahomet: his proselytes, from India to lol'occo, are distinguished by the name of Unitarians; and the d-mger of idolatry has been prevented by the interdiction of im.lges. The doctrine of eternal decrees and absolute pre- de<.;tiuation is strictlyembraceù by the :Jlahometans; and they .trug le, with thè common difficulties, how to reconcile the prescience of God with t.he frecùol1yand responsibility of mnn ; Íiow to explain the pennission of evil under the reign of in- finite power and infinite goodness. þ The God of nature has written his. existence on all his works, and his law in the heart of man. To restore the I n Per (', tom. iv. p. 4- 8.) The great truth, that God 'i with "\.J}t :similitude, is foolishly criticized by :;\Iaracci, (Alcorall, tOlU.I. p rt i j. p. 8ï -Dl,) because he made man aft..:l' his own ima.;c. OF THB ROl\ll\ Er.lPIUE. 107 . lion of the Koran. 8o During that period, son1e rays of pro- phetic light had been imparted to one hundred and twenty-four thousan.d of the elect, discriminated by their respective Incas- ure of virtue arrd grace; three hundred and thirtecn apostles were ent with a special cOl11mission to recall their country from idolatry and vice; one handred and four volumes have been dictated by the Holy Spirit; and six legislators of tran- scendent brightness have announced to lllallkind the six suc- cessive revelations of various rites, Lut of one imntutable religion. The auth.ority and station of .A.dam, Noah, Abra- ham, Ioses, Christ, and l\IahoI11et, rise in just gradation above each other; but whosoever hates or rejects anyone of th prophets is numbered with the infidels. The writings of the patriarch.s were extant only in the apocryphal copies of the (j-reeks and Syrians: 81 the conduct of Adam had not entitled him to the gratitude or respect of his children; the seven precepts of Noah were observed by an inferior and imperfect class of the proselytes of the synagogue; 82 Rnd the menlory úf Abraham was obscurely rcver d by the Sabians in his na- tive land of Chaldæa: of the myriads of prophets, l\Ioses and Christ alone lived and reigned; and the remnant of the in- Bpired writings was comprised ill the books of the Old. and the e\fl Testmuent. The miraculous story of l\foscs is conse- crated and embellished in the Koran ; 3 an.d the captive Jews enjoy the secret revenge of imposing their own belief on the 80 R'.!hmd, de Relig. roh.am. 1. i. p. 17-47. Sale's Preliminary Discou.rse, p. 73-76. Vcyage de Chardin., tom. iv. p. 28-37, and 37 --47, for the Persian addition, "Ali is the "leu of God!" Yet the l)recis.e number of the prophets is not an &rticlB of faith. tn }"oI'the apocryphal books of Adam, see Fablicius Codex Pseu- (lepigr8phus V. T. p. 27-20; of Seth p. Vjt-151 ; of Enoch, p. 160 -21.9. TInt the book of Enoch is con."wc 'Rt,ed, in some measure., by the quotation of the apostle St.. 1 u.ùe; and a long lcgcnda.ry fragment is alleged by Syncellus &ud Scaligcr.. 82 The s ven precepts of Noah are expla.ined by 1\Iar:-;ham, (Canon.. Chronicu.s, p. lõ4-U)o ) who adopts, Oll this occasion, the learning and credulity of Selden. dJ The articles of Adam, .Noah, Abraham, Jloses, &c., in the I3iLlio- thèque of lJ'IIerbelot, are gayly bedecked with the f<\ncifnl legends of the {a.hometfins, w'ho have lmilt 011 the grounclW01"k of Scripture and the TalLnud. · The whole book has sinc.e b(,C'Il recovered ill tbe Ethiopie language,- and has been edited aud translated by ArchbÜ)}lOp L,lwrenoe, Oxford, 1821. --]}1. loe THE DECLINE AND FALL n tions whose recent creeds they deride. For the author of Christianity, the .I\IahOllletans are taught by the prophet to entertain a high and mysterious }"evercnce.8 4 "Verily, Christ Jesus, the son of l\Iary, is the apostle of God, and his won!, which he conveyed unto l\Iary, and a Spil.it proceeding fron1 him; honorable in this world, and in the world to come, Clud one of those who approach near to the presence of God." 8.') The wonders of the genuine and apocryphal gos- pels 86 are profusely heaped on his head; and the LatiI I.:hurch has not disdained to borrow fronl the Koran the in)- lnaculate conception 87 of his virgin Illother. Yet Jesus was a mere mortal; and, at the day of judgment, his tcstinlony YlÌll serve to conden1n both the Jews, who reject hiITI as a j>l'ophet, and the Christians, who adore hilll as the Son of God. The malice of his enelnies aspersed his )'eputation, and con- pired against his life; but their intention only was guilty; a phantOlll or a crinJÏnal was substituted on the cross; and the ;nnocent saint was translated to the seventh hcaven.8 8 Dur- ng six hundred years the gospel was the way of truth and salvation; Lut the Christians insensibly forgot both the laws and exmnplc of their founder; and l\Iahomet was ill- f!-1 Koran, c. 7, p. 128, &c., c. 10, p. 173, &c. D'Herbelot, p. 6-!7, &c 5ã Koran, c. a, p. 40, c. 4, p. 80. D'IIerbelot, p. 399, &c. 86 See the Gospel of St. Thomas, or of the Infancy, in the Codex Apocryphus N. T. of :Fabricius, who collect::; the yarious testimonies concerning it, (p. 1:28-158.) It wa'3 published in Greek by Cotelier, and in Arabic by Sike, who thinks our present copy more recent than )lahomet. Yet his quotations agree with the original about the speech of Christ in hi craùlc, his living birds of clay, &c. (Sik.e, c. i. p. 168, 169, c. 36, p. 198, 109, c. 46, p. 205. Cotelicr, c. 2, p. IGO, 161.) 87 It is c1m-kly hinted in the Koran, (c. 3, p. 39,) and mOl'e clearly eXplained by the tradition of the Sonnites, (Sale's:X ate, and Iaracci, tOlll. ii. p. 112.) III the xiith century, the immaculate conception . was condemned by St. Bernard as a presumptuous novelty, (Fra l"}aolo, Istoria del Concilio cli 'frcnto, 1. ii.) 88 See the Koran, c. 3, Y. 5:3, and c. -1, Y. 156, of Iaracci's edition. Deus cst pncstantissimus dolose agentium (an odd praise) . . . nee crucifixerunt cum, sed objccta est cis similit.udo; an expression that may suit with the system of the Docetcs; but the commentator:; be- lieve (:'Iaracci, tom. ii. p. 113-113, 173. Sal , p. 4 , 43, 79) that another man, a friend or an encmy, was crucified in the likeness of Jesus; a fable which they had read in the Gospel of' 8t. J3arnabus, and which had been started a ea'rly as the time of Irenæus, by some Ebionite heretics, (Beausobre, JIist. du Ianichei me, tom. ii. p. 2';. losheim, de Hch Christ. p. 3.33.) OF TIlE RO::.\IAN E:\IPIRE. 109 structcd by the Gnostics to accuse the church, as well as the synagogue, of corrupting the integrity of the sacred text.8 9 The piety of l\foses and of Christ rejoiced in the aSRurancc of a future prophet, morc illustrious than themselves: the evangelic promise of the Paraelete. or I-Ioly Ghost, was pre- figured in the name, and accomplished in the person, of 1\111- homet,ao the greatest and the bst of the apostles of God. The communication of idcas req 11lres a similitude of thought and language: the discourse of a philosopher would vibrate without effect on the ear of a peasant; yet how mi- nute is the distance of their ullder tandings, if it be compared wIth the cont:lct of an infinite and a tillite mind, with the word of God expressed by the tongue or the pen of a 1110rtal ! The in piration of the Ilebrew prophets, of the apostles and cvangeli"ts of Christ, 111ight not be incompatible with the exercise of their reason and melTIOry; and the diversity of their genius is iroesi lIebræorum Prælect.. xxxii. xxxiü. xxxiv., with his German editor, :Michaelis, Epillletron iv.) Yet . Compare Von Hammer, Gcschichte der Assassinen, p. 11. - M. OF THE ROl\IAN El\IPIRE. l1J the cOmpOSltlùH of the Korau exceed the faculties of a lnan. to what superior intelligence should we ascribe the Iliad of I-Iomer, or the Philippics of Demosthenes? In all religions, the life of the founrler supplies the silence of his written rev.. elation: the sayings of l\Iahomet were so 111any lessons of truth; his actions so rnany examples of virtue; and the pub.. lic and private menlorials were preserved by his wives and companions. .At the end of two hundred years, the SOllna, or oral law, was fixed and consecrated by the labors of Al Eoch:ll"i, \,,"ho discriminated seven thousand two hundred and seventy-fÌ\ e genuine tI dditions, frOlTI a 111aSS of three hundred thousand reports, of a lTIOre doubtful or spurious character. Each day the pious author prayed in tIte temple of I\Iecca, and performed his ablutions with the water of ZClTIZem: the pages \\-ere successively deposited on the pulpit and .the sep- ulchre of the apostle; and the \Vork has been approved by the four orthodox sects of the Sonnites.9.) The mission of the ancient prophets, of 1\losos and of Jesus, had been confirmed by many splendid prodigies; and 1\la- homet was repeatedly urged, by the inhabitants of l\Iecca and l\Iedina, to produce a similar evidence of his divine legation; to call down from hea \Ten the angel or the vol UlTIe of his rev- elation, to create a garden in the de ert, or to kindle a confla- gration in the unbelieving city. As often as he is pressed by the demands of the Koreish, he involves himself in the obscure boast of vision and prophecy, appeals to the internal proofs of his doctrine, and shields himself behind the providence of God, who refuses those signs and wonders that would depre- :!IIichaeiis (p. G71-(73) haC) detected many Egyptian image:,:, the elephantia..:;is, papyru'3, Nile, crocodile, &c. The language is ambigu- ouslv styled Arabico-IIebræa. The resemblance of the sister dialects was w much more visible in their childhood, than in their mature age, (JIichaeli<;;, p. GS2. Schultens, in Pn-efat. J op.)* 95 Al TIochari died A. II. 2ì1. See D'lIerbelot, p. 208, 4lG, 827. Gagnier, N at. acl AbulleJ. c. 19, p. 33. · The age of the book of Job is still and probably will still be dispnt('d. Rospnmnller th us states his own opinion: "Certe serioribus reipublicæ tcmporibus assiðnandum esse librum, suadere \idetur ad Chaldaismum vergens senna." Yet the observations of Kosegarten, which Rosenmnllcr has given in a note, and common reason, sugge::.t tha.t this Chaldaism may Le the native form of a much earlier dialect; or the Chaldaic lllay have adopted the podica.l archaisms of a dial('('t, differing from, but not less anCient than, the Heùrew. See Rosenmuller, Proleg. on Job, p. 41. The poetry appears to me to belong to a much earlier period. _ M. 112 THE DECLI::.\E Al'D FALL ciate the Inerit of faith, and aggravate the guilt of iníiL1clity. But the lTIodest or angry tone of his apologies betrays his weakness and vexati6n; and these passages of scandal estab li'Shed, beyond suspicion, the integrity of the Koran. go The votaries of 1\lahomet are 1110re assured than himself of his rniraculous gifts; and, their confidence and credulity incrense as they are farther removed frOlTI the t1n1e and place of his spiritual exploits. They believe or affirm that trees went forth to meet him; that he was aluted by stones; that water gushed from his fingers; that he fed th hungry, cured the sic k, and raised the dead; that a bealh groaned to him; that a camel complained to him; that a shoulder of mutton informed him of its being poisoned; and that both animate and inani- mate )lature ,vere eqnally subject to the apostle of God. 97 His dream pf a nocturnal journey is seriously described as a real and corporeal transt ction. .L\. Inys erious aninwl, the Borak, c011veyed hirn frOlT1 the temple of l\Iccca to that of Jerusalem: with his companion Gabriel he successively ascended the seven heavens, and recei,.ed and repaid the salutations of the patriarchs, the prophets, and the angels, in their respec- tive mans1on . Beyond the seventh heaven, "Mahomet alone was pen-nitted to proceed; he passed the veil of unity, ap- proached within two bow-shots of the throne, and felt a cold that pierced him to the heart, when his shoulder ,vas touched by the hand of God. Aficr this familiar, though important conversatioB, he again desccnded to Jerusalem, rcmounted tlie Borak, rettlrned to :Mecca; and performed in the tenth part of a night the journey of many thousand years. 98 Ac- !Ii> See, more remarkably, Koran, c. 2, 6, 12, 13, 17. rrideaux (Life of :Üahomet, p. 18, 19) has confounded the impostor. ltlaracci, with a more learned apparatug, has shown that the passages which deny hi3 miracles arc clear and positive, (Alco .-an, tom. i. pal t. ii. p. 7-- 12,) and those which seem to assert them arc mnbióuous and insulli.- éÏcnt, (p. 12-2 .) 07 See the Specimen JIist. Ara1mID, the text of Ab ulph a rag ius, p. 17, the notes of Pocock, p. 187-190. D'IIcrbclot, .BiLliothèque Orientale, p.. 76, 77. Yoyaf;es de Chardiu, tom. iv. p. 200-20:3. raracci (Alcoran, tom. i. p. j:!-ù4) has. most laboriously collected find cO 1futcd the miracles and prophecies of Iahomet, which, accord- in to some writers, am.ount to three thousand. O The nocturnal journey i:3 cireumstantially related by Ahulfeda, (in Yit. )lohammed, c. 10, p. 33,) "who wishes to think it a yision; b} l)rideaux, (p. 31-40,) who aggravates the absm'dities; and by Uagnipr, (tom. i. p. 2,;2-343,) "who declarca, from thc zealous Ai Jannabi, that to ÙCIIY thi::; journey, i:-5 to disbclieyc the Koran. Yet the Koran, OF THE ROl\IAN EMPIRE. 113 cording to another legend, the apustle confounded in a national assembly the malicious challenge of the Koreish. IIis resist- less word split asunder the orb of the l11oon: the obedipr.t planet stooped from her station in the sky, ccomplishcd the seven revolutions round the Caaba, saluted l\Iahornet in the Arabian tongue, and, suddenly contracting her dimensions, cntered at the collar, and issueù. forth through the slecve, of his shirt. 99 The vulgar are amused with these marvellous tales; but the gravest of the l\fussulman doctors imitate the modesty of their master, and indulge a latitude of faith or interpretation. lOO They might speciously allege, that in preaching the religion it was neeùless to violate the harmony of nature; that a creed unclouded with Inystery may be ex- cused from miracles; and that the sword of IHahornet was not less potent than the rod of 1\loses. The polytheist is oppressed and distr(tcted by the variety of superstition: a thousand rites of Egyptian origin were interwoven with the essence of the :Mosaic law; and the spirit of the gospel had evaporated in the pageantry of the church. The prophet of .Mecca was tempted by prejudice, or policy, or patriotism, to. sanctify the rites of the Arabians, and the custom of visiting the holy stone of the Caaba. But tbe pre- without nami.ng either heavcn, or Jerusalem, 01" :Uecca, has only dropped a mysterious... hint: Laus illi qui transtulit servum UU1Jl ab oratorio Haram ad oratorium remoti !'imum, (Koran, c. 17, v. 1; iu laracci, tom. ii. p. 107; for ale's r:.;ion i::; more licentious.) \ slen- der basis for the aerial structure of trailition. 99 In the prophetic style, whie)1 uses the pre'-ent or past for the future, :Mahomet had said, Appropinq u[>vit hora, et sci:3sa c:-;t luna, (Koran, c. .J 1, v. 1; in )I acci, tom. ii. p. GSS.) This fi ure of rhetoric has been converted into a fact, which is said to be a.;tested bv tlw most respectable eye-witllesrticle of :l\1ahomet, Bayle has shown hO\v indifferently wit and philosophy supply the absence of genuine information. 111 Before I enter on the history of the prophf't, it is incull1.bent on me to prod.uce my evidence. _ The Latin, French, and English yersions of the Koran are precedetl by histol ical discourses, and the three transla ors, )Iaracci, (tom. i. p. 10-32,) Sayary, (tom. i. p. 1-248,) mHl Sa10, (Preliminary Di::;cour ;c, p. 33-56,) had accurately studied the Iml' ua,.;e and character of their author. Two professed Lives of :Ma1->omet have been composed by Dr. Prideaux (Life of Iahomet, seveath c.titian, IJonc1on, 1718. in octayo) and the count de Boulain- villicr!':, (Vie de 1\Iahomed, Londl'es, lÏ:30, in octavo:) but the adverse 'wish of finding an impot;tor or a hero, ha:3 too often corrupted the lcarnin of the doctor and the ingenuity of the count. The article in D'!Ierbclot (Bibliot. Orient. p. 598-603) i::; chiefly drawn from :K ovairi and :\Iirkond; but the best and morst authentic of our guides is )L U- gnier, a Frenchman by birth, and professor at Oxford of the Oriental ton nes. In two ela.borate works, (Ismacl Abnlfeda. de Yita et H.ebus gesti:,; ::\lnhammcdis, &c. Latine vertit, Præfatione et X otis illu:-travit Johannes Gagnier, Oxon. 1723, in folio. La Vie ùe }'Iahomet trad.uite et cOInl'ilée de l' Alcoran, des Traditions Authenti- ques de la Sanna et des l1leilleurs Auteurs Arabes; Amsterclam, 174-8, 3 yols. in 1 mo.,) he ha::; interpreted, illu trated, and supplied the Arabic text of AbulfeJa and Al J annabi; the first, an enlightened prince, who reigned at Hamah, in Syria, A. D. 1310-133 , tsee Gagnier Præfat. ad Almlfcd.;) the f'econcl, a credulous doctor, who vi8Íted :Mccca A. D. 15Jl5. (D'Uerbclot, p. ð97. Gagnier, tom. iii. p. 209, 210.) These are my general vouehcrs, anll the in4uisitive reader may follow the order of time, and the ùi vi::iion of chapters. Yet I must observe that both Abulfeda ana Ai Jallnabi are modern hiqto- 1'Ìans, amI that they eannot appeal to any "Titers of the first century of the Hcgira. '* A new Life, by Dr. ""\V cil, (Stuttgart, 18,1-3,) has added some few tra- ditions, 11nknown ill Europe. Of Dr. \VeiL's Araùic scholarship, which profes es to <:urrect many errors ill Gagnier, in Uaracci, and in .i\1. yon Hamllwr, I am. no judge. Bllt it Î5 remarkable that hf' does not seem acqnainted with the passa e of Ta.bari, translë.ted ùy Colonel Vans Ken- neùy, in the Bombay Trans.\ctions, (vol. iii.,) the earliest anù most impor- ta.nt aùdition m:lde to the traditionary Life of :Mahomct. I am incli.ned OF THE TIO:UAN El\[PITIE. 121 those of his wife, his selTant, his pupil, and his friend; 11 since he presented himself as a prophet to those who were Inost conversant with his infirmities as a man. Yet Cadijah believed the words, and cherished the glory, of her hushand; .. the obsequious and affectionate Zcid was tempted by the prospect of feeedonl;' the illustrious Ali, the son of Abu Trrleu, emhraced the sentiments of his cousin with the s irit of a youthful hero; and the wealth, the moderation, the veracity of Abubeker confirmed the religion of the prophet whom he was destined to succeed. By his persuasion, ten of d1C most respectable citizens of l\Iecca were introduced to the private lessons of Islam; they yielded to the voice of reason and cnthusiasln; they repeated the fundamental creed, "There is but one God, and l\Iahomet is the apostle of God; 17 and their faitb, even in this lifè, \vas rewarded with riches and honors, with the command of armies and the government of kingdoms. Three years were silently eln- ployed in the conversion of fourteen proselytes, the first-fruits of his mission; but in the fourth year he assumed the pro- phetic office, and resolving to impart to his family the light of divine truth, he prepared a banquet, a ImTIb, as it is said, and a bowl of 111ilk, for the entertainment of forty guests of the ràcc of Hashem. "Friends aw.1 kinslTIf'n," said 1\la- hornet to the assembly, "I offer you, and I alone can oiler, the most precious _of gifts, the treasures of this world and of the world to come. God has commanded me to call you to his service. \Vho among you will support my burden? 'Vho among you will be my companion' and lTIY vizi!3 r ? " 113 No answer was returned, till the silence of astonishment, and doubt, and conten1pt, was at length broken by the impatient courage of Ali, a youth in the fourteenth year of his age. 112 After the Greck , Prideaux (p. R) disclose;;; the secret doubts of the wife of :l\Iahomet. As if he had been a privy counsellor of the prophet, BoulaÏ1williers (p. 27:2, &c.) unfolds the sublime and patriotio ,'icws of Cadijah and the fir:st disciples. !'3 rczirus, portitor, bajulus, onus ferens; and this plebeian name wag transferred by an apt metaphor to the pillars of the state, (Gagnier, K ot. ad Aqulfed. p. 1 D.) I endeavor to preserve the Arabian idiolI us far as I can fed j t myself in a Latin or :French translation. to think Colonel Vans Kel1nedy's appreciation of the prophet's ch ractt'r, which may be overlooked in a criticism on Voltaire's Mahomet, the most just which I have ever read. The work of Dr. 'Veil appears to'11C most \aluable in it:; dissection and chronologit:'al view of the Koran. - M. 18.1.1. YOLo v. 11 122 THE DECLINE AND F.A LL '0 prophet, I am the man: whosoever riscs against thcc I will dash out his teeth, tear ont his eyes, break his legs, )'ip lip his beUy. 0 prophpt, I \vill he lilY )'izicr over th('m." 1\1ahomet aeceptf'd his oiler with transport, and Abu Talf'd was ironicaHy e,hortcd to 'respect the superior dignity of his on. ]n a nwre serious tone, the Üüher of Ali advised his l1C'phew to relinquish his ilnpracticable d sign. " Spare :'our remonstrances," replieù the intrepiù fanatic to his uncle amI beneTactor; ., if they should place the sÚn on IllY right hand 1 and the moon on nJY left, they should not (Ev('rt me from nlY cbur e." fIe persevered tcn years in the exercise of hi:;:; nl1.3Sion; and lhe religion which ha:3 overspread the Bast and the \V est atlvanc d with a slow and painful progress within the walis of l\lpc'-'a. Yet l\Iahornet enjoyed the satisfaction of beholding the illcrea e of his infunt congregation of pnita.- rians, who reyered hin) as a prophet, and to whom he season- ably dispensed the spiritual nourishment of thE' Koran. 'The number of proselytes may be esteemed by.the absence of ej hty-threc n1 n and eighteen women,- who retired to iEthio- pia in the seventh year of his lnÌssion; and his party was fortIfied by the tin1ely conversion of his uncle IIan1za, and of the fierce anù illtÌcxibJe OInar, who siglJn.lized in the cause of Islam the s une zeal, \vhich he had exerted for i s destrnc- tion. Nor was the charity of l\Iahomct conlllled to the tribe of Koreish, or the preciñcts of :l\Iecca: on solemn fe:-;tivals, . in the days of pilgrimage, he frequented the Caaba, accosted the strangers of every tribe, and urged, Loth in private con- verse and public discourse, the belief and \vorship of a sole Deity. Conscious of his reason and of. his weakness, he asserted the liberty of conscience, and disc1aimed the use of religious violence: 114 but he called the Arabs to repentance, and c9njured then1 to rememher the rtIlcient iJolaters of Ad and Thamud, \yhom thc divine justicc haù swept away froB1 he face of the earth. l1 .J 114 The passases of the Koran in behalf of tolerí'tion are strong' and numerou..;: c. 2, v. '25ï, c. Hi. 1:2 , c. 17, 54, c. 45, 1.3, c. 50, 39, c. 88, 21, &c., ".ith the notes of :!\laracci and Sale. This character alone may generaUy decide t.he doubts of the learned, whether a cha.pter was reyealeJ at )lccca or :Mcdina. 113 See the Koran, (passim, and eSl ecially c. 7, p. 123, 12.1, &c.,) and the tradition of the Arabs, (Pocod:., l)Cl:Îmen, r. 3:5-27.) The caverns of the tribe of Thamutl, fit for men of the ordinarv stature, were shown in the mi,lway between Icùina arJ D..Ull 1.:.; us, (Abu1fl'(\' OF THE RO:i\lA:N E:\IPIRE. 123 The people of :Mecca wcre hardened in. their unbelief by superstition and Cl1\TY. 'fhc elders of the city, the uncles of the prophet, affccted to dcspise the presumption of an orphan, the refùrmcr of his country: the pious orations of l\Iahoi1lct in the Caaua wcre answcred hy the clamors of .A..bu Talcb. H Citizens and pilgrims, listen not to the tcmpter, hcarken not to his impious novelties. Stand fast in the worsllip of Al LiLta and AI U zzah," Yet the son of Abdallah was c\'er dear to the aged chief: n.nd- he protected the fame and persoll ðf his nep,hew ng:Úllst the assaults of the Koreishites, who had long beea jealous of the IHeëmil1ence of the fan1iiy of I-Iashe!n. 'I'heir nw.licc was colored with the pretencc of religion: in the age of Job, the crime of impicty was punished by the Ara- bian luagistrate ; HG and lyILlhomet was guilty of deserting and denying the n tional deities. But so 10o D was tll poli y of .Mecca, that the leaders of the Korcish, ill..;tcaJ of accusing a criminal, \vere compelled to .cmploy the 1 1casur('s of pcr- suasioll or violence. They repeatedly addressed 1.\bu Ta!co in the style of reproach and nlcnace. " Thy nephew revile;; our religion; he accuses åur wise forefathers of ignorånce and fully; silence him quickly, lest he kindle tunntlt and di ;cJrd in the city. If he persevere, we shall draw our sword against hirn anù his aòherents, and thou wilt be responsible fot, the blom! of thy fellow-ciÚzcns. ' The weight and nlod- eration of Abu Taleb eluded the violence or religious faction; the 1110St helplcss or timid of the disciples rctired to lEthio- pia, anù the prophet v. ithdrew himself to various plac -,8 of strength in the town and country. As he was still sup- ported by his family, the rest of the tribe of Korclsh cngagéd thenlsclves to renounce all intercourse with the children of Hashem, neither to buy nor sell, neither to Inarry nor to givc ,.n marriage, but to pursue t 1Cln with implacable enmity, tin ,hey shoulJ deliver the person of l\lahOluet to the justice of the gods. The decree wa 'Suspended in the Caaba before Arabiæ Dc cript. p. 43, 44,) and may be proba.bly a:,;cribcd to the Troglodytes of the l,rÏ1nitivc world, t.:\Iieh, acli!': acl Lm,vth de Poesi IIeLræor. p. 131-134:. l cchcrchos sur lC3 .E, rpticns, tom. ii. p. 4S, &c.) 116 In the time of Job. the crime of impicty w n pu.nishccl by the Arabian magbtrate, (c. 1, v. 26, 27, 28.) I bluH l fJr a respectable prelate (de Poesi IIcbræorum, p. (5,')0, (5.:51, edit. :\Ii('hapli : anÜ letter of a late professor in thp univer;;;ity of Oxford. p. l;)-.j; . ,. h.) jUiti- fic;:, aaù applau.l..;; thi'3 pdriarc:hal iWluisition. 121 THE DECLINE AND r ALL the eyes of the nation; the înessengers of the K(}n ish pur.. sHed the IVIuss111man exiles in the heart of AJrica: they be- sieged the prophet and his m05t faithful followers, intercepted their water, and inflamed their lTIutual anirnosity by tho retaliation of injuries and insult . A doubtful truce resîored the appearances of concord till the death of j\bu Tnleb ahan- doned l\JahoH1('t to the power of his' enemies, at the moment wItCn he was deprjyed of his domestic comforts by the loss of his faithful and generous Cadijah. Abu Sophian, the chief of the braDch of On1n1Ïyah, succeeded to the principality of the repubJic of :l\lecca. A zealous votary of the idols, a mor- tal foc of the line oÏ I-1ashe111, he convened an assembly of the Koreishites and their allies, to decide the fate of the apos- tle. Ifis imprisonment rnight provoke the despair of his enthusiasm; and the exile of an eloquent and popular fanatic would diffuse the mischief through the provinces of Arabia I-lis death was resolved; and th('v agreed that a sword frorn each tribe should be buried in his he .t, to divide the guilt of li blood, and bailie the vengeance of 111e IIashemites. l\n angel or a spy revealed their conspiracy; and flight was the only resource of l\fahomet. 1l7 At the dead of night, aCC0I11- panieo by his friend Abubeker, he silently escapcLI frOlTI his hOl1 c: thc assassins watched at the door; but they were de- ceived by the figure of Ali, who reposed on the bcd, and was covered with the green \'estmen.t of the apostle. The Koreish respected the piety of the heroic youth; but SOlTIC versE'S of ..A.li, which are still extant, exhibit an interesting picture of his anxiety, his tenderness, and his religious "confidence. Three days l\laho.met and his companion were concealed in the cave of Thor, at the distance of a league from :Mecca; an<1 in the close of each evening, they received from the son and daugh- ter of Abubeker a secret supply of intelligence and food. 1'he diligence of the Koreish explored every haunt in the neighborhood of the city: they arrived at the entrance of tho cavern.; but the providential deceit of a spider's web and a pigeon's nest is suppos d to convince them that the pIúcc was solitary and inviolate. "\V e are only two," said the 1 rf'mhling Àbubekcl'. "There is a third," replied the prophet; "it is God himself." No soone!" was the pursuit abated than the two fugitives issueJ from the rock, and monnkll iheir 117 D'JIcrbclot, nibliot. Orient. p. 41.;. lIe quotes a parLicula: hi tory of the flight of :Mahomct. OF 'i'lIE ROj\.[AN El\Il)IRE. 125 C:(Ùh ;S: on the road to l\Iedina, they ,yere overtaken by the cmi baries of the Korcish; they ]'p.deemed theillsclves with orayCi's and promises f1'om their' hands. In this eventful 1110- 111ent, the lance of an Arab lnight have changed the history of the world. The flight of the prophet from l\Iecca to 1\le- dina has fixed the memorable æra of the Jlegira,18 which, at the end of twelve centuries, still discriminates the lunar years of the l\Iahometan nations)l!} .. The religion of the Koran might have perished in it cradle, had not I\ledina eillbraced ,yith faith and reverence the holy outcasts of l\lecca. :Medina, or the city, known under the name of Yathreb, before it was sanctified by the throne of the prophet, was divided between the tribes of the Charegites and the i\.. wsites, whose hereditary feud was rekindled by the slightest provocations: two colonies of Jews, who boasted a sacerdotal race, were their humble allies, and without con- verting the Arabs, they introduced the taste of science "and religion which distinguished 1Yledina as the city of the Book. Some of her noblest citizens in a pilgrimage to the Caaba, were converted by the preaching of 1\Iahon1et; on their return, they diffuseù the belief of God and his prophet, and the new alliance was ratified by their deputies in tWð secret and noc- turnal lluerviews on a hill in the suburbs of l\Iecca. In the first, ten Charegites and two Awsites united in faith and love, pro ested, in the name of their wives, their children, and their absent brethren, that they would forever profess the creed, and observe the precepts, of the Koran. The second was a political association, the first vital spark of the empire of the Saracens.l 20 Seventy-three men and two women of l\Iedina 11S The TTcgit'a was instituted by Omar, the scconcl caliph, in imi- tation of the Ull1, &c., c. 1, p. 8, 10, &c.). ;:) ;:) 119 ::\Iahomet's lifo, from hi:-; mission to tho Hegira, may he found in Abulfoda (p. 14-1.3) and Gagnier, (tom. i. p. 134- .)1, 34 -38a.) The lc.;encl from p. 187-231 i vouched by Al Jannabi, and disclainccl by Ahulfecla. .120 The triple inauguration of Iahomet is described by Abulfe\.la · Ghronolo ists dispute between the I.5th and 16th of J 11.1y. St. l\IartÌn mclincs to the 18th, eh. xi. p. 70. -1\1. . 11 * 126 THE DECLINE AND FALL helll a solenm conference with rtlahomet, his },insman, af.d hi disciples; and pledged themselves to each other by a n)utua oath of fidelity. They promiscd, in the name of thc city, that if he should be ronished, they would receive hin1 as confederate, obey him as a ]cader, anll defend him to thE. last extremity, like their wives and children. '"' But if you are recalled by yot;r country," they asked with a flattering anxi- ety, ",,,,,ill you not abandon your new al1ies ? " '''All things," replied ì\[aliomet with a smile, '" are now comrnon between us ; YOUT blood is as Iny blood, your ruin as m.y Tuin. \Ve arc bound to each other by the ties of honor anù interest. I aIll your friend, and the enemv of vour foes." "But if we are killed in your service, wh t," xclaimed the deputies of Medina, " will he our reward?" " PARADISE," replied the prophet. " Stretch forth thy hane1." f-Ie sti'etched it forth, and they reiterated the oath of aHegiance and fidelity. Their treaty "Was ratified by the people, who unanimously embraced the profession of Islam; they rejoiced in the exile of the apostle but they tr81nblcd for his safety, and impatiently expected his arrival. After a pm-ilous and rapid journey along the sea- coast, he halted at Koba, two miles fron1 the city, and Blade his public cntrÿ into I\ledina, sixteen days after his flight frOlH l\lccca. Five hundred of the citizens advanced to lTIect him; he was hailed with acclamations of loyalty and devotion; 1\130- hOlnet was lTIounted on a she-can1cl, an umbrella shaded his head, and a turban was unfurled before hin1 to supply the deficiency of a standard. l-lis bravest disciples, who had becn scattered Ly the storm, assembled round his person; and the cqual, though various, merit of the l\Ioslems was distinguished by the names of ltlo!tagrrians and Ansars, the fugitives of :i\1ecca, and the auxiliaries of l\lediu:1. To eraùicate the seeds of jealousy, l\lahornet judiciously coupled his prÜ1cipal follow- ers with the rights and obligations of Iwcthrcn; and when Ali. found himself without a peer, the IH"ophct tenderly de- darcd, that he would be the companion tun) LrotÌlcr úf tIle noble youth. The expedient was crowned with success; the hely fraternity wa::; respccted in peace and war, and the two parties vied with each thcr in a generous elnulation of cour- age lld fidelity. Orice only the concord was slightly fuflled by an accidental quarrel: a patriot uf :i\Icdina arraigned the (p. 30, 33,40, 8G) amI Gagnier, (tom. i. p. 342, &c, 34!), &c., t< :n. h. p. 2 3, &c.) OF THE ROil'fAN E::\:!:PIRE. 127 insolencé: of the str:lngcrs, but the hii t of their expulsion was hcurù with abhorrence; and his own son nwst eagerly oflcred to lay at the apostle's feet the heael of his father. . From his cstabli .lHnent at r\Iedina, l\{ahomet assumed the exercise of the regal and sacerdotal office; and it was impious to appeal from a jlld c \\ hose decrees were inspired Ly the divine wisdom. 1\ small portion of grounù, the patrimony of two oq}hans, was acquired hy gift or purchase; 121 on that chosen spot he built a house and a. mosch, more venerable in their rude simplicity than the palaces anJ temples of the .ll.s::;yri ul caliphs. I-lis seal of gold, or silyer, v.ras iI1scribed with the apostolic title; when he prayed and preached in the weekly aS8embly, he leaned against the trunk of a raha-trce; and it W.lS long before he indulged hilnself in the use of a chair or pull}it ef rough tìmbcr. 122 After a reign uf six years, íifteen hundred :Mos1cms, in anus and ill tlp3 fic1d" rencwed their o th of 8:11cgianoe; and their chief repeated the i).ssur- ance of protection till the death of the last lTIembcr, or the Gnal disSJlutiol1 of the party. It was in tJ.:c ame ciunp that the åcputy uf :l\Iecca was astonished by thc attcntion of the faithfa! to the words and looks of the prophet, by the eager- ness with which they collected his spittle, a hair that dropped on the ground., the refuse water of his lustraticns, as if they participated il1. some degree of the prophetic \-irtue. " I have seen," s.lid he," the Chosroes of Persia and the Cæsar of Rome, but never did I behold a king among his subjects like l\Iahomet among his companions." The devou.t fervor of enthusiasm. acts with more energy and truth thaIl the cold and formal servility of courts. In the state of nature, every lnall has a fight to defend, by Il l'riùeaux (Life of rRhomet. p. 44) reviles the wickec111 ss of the tmpostor, who clespoilc(l two poor orphans., the sons of a carpcnter; a l'cproach w'hich he drew from the Disputrttio con.tra Sarace!" o . com- lJosed. in .A.rahic bc>fore the year 11 :30; bl\t the honest Ga llier (ad AhulfccL p. 5: ) hnuons of the doctors, and our moùern tra,ycllef;3 the confidence, the fmling cOl::.lidencc, of the Turks. OF THE ROl\IAS El\IPIRE. 131 formed of three hundred and thirteen l\Ioslems, of whom seventy-seven were fugitives, and the rest auxiliaries; they 'Dounted by turns a train of seventy camels, (the can1els of Yathreb were formidable in war;) but such was the poverty of his first disciples, that only two could appear on horseback [1: the field. 128 In the fertile and falllOUS vale of Peder,l29 three stations fr01n l\'Iedina, he was informed by his scouts of the caravan that approached on one side; of the Koreish, one hundred horse, eight hundred and fifty foot, who advanced on the other. After a short debate, he sacrificed the prospect of wealth to the pursuit of glory and revenge; and a slight intrenchment was formed, to cover his tt.oops, and a stream of fresh water, that glided through the valley. "0 God," he exclaimed, as the numbers of the Koreish descended fron1 the hills, " 0 God, if these are destroyed, by whunl wilt thou be worshipped on the earth? - (jourage, n1Y children; clos your ranks; discharge your arrows, and the day is your own." At these words he placed himself, with Abubekcr, un a throne or pulpit,13ß and instantly demanded the succor of Gabriel and three thousand angels. His eye was fixed on the field of battle: the l\Iussulmans fainted and wcre pressed: in that decisive moment th prophet started fr0111 his throne, nounteù his horse, and cast a handful of sand Ìnto the air: 1 8 Al Janna-hi (apud Ga;nier, tom. ii. p. 9) allows him sJJventy or eighty horse; and on two other occasions, prior to the battle of Uhud, he enlists a hoåy of thirty (p. 10) and of 500 (p. GG) troopcrd. Yet th 11ussulmans, in the field of Ohud, had no more than two horscs, according to the bettcr sense of ..\.bulf('ù (in. Yit. )Ioham.. c. x xi. p. G.).) In the :Ston!/ province, tIle ci:J.m.els were numerous; but the hor:>e appears to h.ave been 1e83 commou than ill the IlupP!l or the Desert Arabia. 120 I3c1dcr Houneene, twcnty miles fTom Icdina, and forty from J\Iccca, is on the high roa({ of the carayan of E;;ypt; :md the pilgrims èlnnwtlly conuncmomte the prophet's victory by illmninatioll-::>, rockct::;, &c. Shaw's Travels, p. 477. 130 The placc to which :\lahonlet rctirecl during the action is style!l hy Ga,gnier (in AbuUcda, c. '27, p. 5S. Vie de lahomet, tom. ii. p. :;0, 33) Uml1N{,cululu, 'lOW l(J!Je {le bois avec 'lUte porte. The liRmc Arahic word Ï3 rendered by Rci:ske (Anllalcs !\Ioslcmici Abulfedæ, p.23) by ,';oZium, UJ!JCliitttS C(ÜÛOI"; am.l the ùifferenf'e is of the utrrlost moment for the hOllOI' both of the interpreter and of the h(>1'o. I am sorry to observc the pride and aerimony with whil'h Hciskc chastises his fellow- laborer. Sa'pi sic vertit. ut illteg:ræ paginæ ncqu.cant uisi nnt!. litur.Î. corrigi: Arabice non satis callchat, ef. cm"ehat judicio critico. J. J. Heiskc, Proùidagmata ad IIRöJi Chalisæ Tahulas, p. 228, ad calccm Abulfexlæ Syriæ Ta.bulæ; Lipsiæ, 17òü, in 4ta. J32 THE D:ECL1NE .AND F ALI "Let tl1cir faces be covered with confusion." Both armics heard the thunder of his voice: tncir fancy beheld the angelic warriors: ]31 the Koreish trembled and fled: seventy ur the bravest \vere slain; and seventy captives adorned the :first victory of the faithful. The dead bodies of the Koreish were despoiled an insulted: two of the most obnoxious pris- e.lers were punished with death; and the ransom of th others, four thousand drams of silver, compensated in some degree lÌle e ape of the caravan. But it was in vain that the caInels tA 11bu Sophian explored a new road through tbe desert and ,I tong the Euphrates: they were overtalien by the diligence ,.r the l\fussulmans; and wealthy Inust have been the p:rize) jf twenty thousand drams could be set apart for tne fifth of hc apostle. The re ntlnent of the public and private loss ,.:tnoulated Abu Sophian to collect a body of three thousanrl nen, seven hundred of ",'hom \verc armed with cuira es, nnd !wo hundred were }110untÐ{\ on. horseback; three thousand f'amels attended his march; anù his wife I-Jcnda, with fif.teen Hlatrons of l\leccå, illcessantly sounded their til11brels to anÌ- :mate the troops, and to nm.gnify the greatness of IIobal, the most popular deity of the Caaba. The standard of God and _Uah0111et was uphdll by nine hundred aud fifty believers: the disproportion of nmnbers was not l-nore alarming than in the field of TIedeI'; and their presurnption of victory prevailed against the divine and human sense of the apostle. The ('c- ond battle was fuught on l\"Iount Ohud, six lHiles to the north of l\Ic{lina: lð2 the Korcish advanced in the form of acres- eent; L\lld the right wing uf cavalry was led by Calcd, the flCrcest and most succes Înl of the A.rabi n warriors. 'rho troops of .Mahomet were ski!îully posted on the declivity of 1he bill; and their rear was guarded by a detachment of finy archers. The weight of their charge il-npellcd and hroke the centre or the iùolater : but in the punmit they lost the advan- tage of thcir grounù: the archers deserted their station: the !.lussulmans were tempted Ly the spoil, disobeycll their gt:;n- 131 The loose expressions of the Koran (c. 3, p. 121-, 12,), c. 8, p. 9) allow the commentators to flu('tuate betw('cn the numbers of 1000, :WOO, or DODO angels; and the smanc t of thpse might suflice for the. Elaughter of seventy of the Koreish, (MaraC'ci, Alcoran, tom. ii. p. } 1.) Yet the same scholiasts confess that thi" angelic banl! .was not "tISlhlc to nny mortal cJ<", (:\Iaral'l'i, p. !)7.) TIlC'Y rclinç on the words (I'. H, IG) "nut thou, but God," &c. (lJ'lIerbcló)t., BiLliot. Oriclltalf', V. GOO (101.) 13: Geogr ph. N ubiensis, 11' 47. OF THE ROl\IA El\IPIRE. 13:1 el'at, and disordered their ranks. The intr('pid Calecl, wheel Jl10" his cavtllr y on their flank and rear, exclaimed, with a lond ;:') voice, that lVlahQll1et was slain. He was indcC'd wounded in the face with a javelin: two of his teeth .were shattereù with a stone; yet, in the midst of tumult and dismay, he reproached the infidels with the murder of a prophet; and blessed the friendly hand that stanched his blood, and conveyed hirn to a place of safety. Seventy martyrs died for the sins of the people: they fell, said the apostle, in pairs, each brother em- bracing his lifeless companiun ; 133 their bodies were 111angled by the inhuman females of l\fecca; and the wife of Abu So- phian tasted the entrails of Hamza, the uncle of l\Irrh01l1et. They Inight applaud their sllperstition, and satiate their fury; but the l\Iussulrnans soon rallied in the field, and the Kurcish wanted strengJl or courage to unrlertake the siege of leJina. It was attacked the ensuing yeÜr by an army of ten thousand ene111ics; and this third expçdition is variously nameù from the nations, which marched under the banner of .Abu Sophian, from the ditch which \vas drawn before the city, anù a camp of three thousand r,Iussulmans. The prudence 'of :I\Iahomet decliw:ù a general engagement: the valor of .AJi was sig nalizcd in sing1e combat; and the war was protracted twenty days, till the final separation of the confèclcrates. A tempest of wind, rain, and hail, overturned their tents: their private quarrels were fomented by an insidious adversary; and the Koreish, deserted by their allies, no lon::;cl' hoped to subvert the throne, or to check the conquests, of their invincible eX ile. 13 ' 1 The choice of Jerusalem for the first kebb of prayer dis- covers the cn:r1y propensity of 'Mahomet in fa\"or of tho Jews; and happy would it have been for their temporal ill- 1'33 In the iiid chapter of the Koran, (p. 50-53, with Sale's 11otes,) tIll) prophet aUcge some poor excuses for the defeat of Ohud. * 1.:-1 For the detail uf the three Koreish war;:;, of Uedcr, of Ohud, and f the ditch, pcru e Abulfeda, (p. .j(: -Gl, G4-69, 73-77,) (ja llier, (tom. ii. p. 2; ---1.), 70-nG, 1 0-1: 9,) with the proper articles of 1)' Herhclot, and the abritlgments of Elma il1 (Hi:;t. :::)aracen. p. G, 'j) tmcl Almlpharagiu:-;, (Dyna t. iJ. 102.) * Dr. 'Veil has adùed some carious circum"t:mces, which he gives as on ooù traditional authority, 011 the rl':5CliC of l\Iaholllct. The prophet was attackeù hv Ub<:,ijj Ibll Challaf, whom he struck on the neck with a. mortal ";OUllù. This was the only time, it i.5 aLlùc,l, that Mahomct personally cngaged in LLltllc. (p. 12;::$.) -1\1. UH,j. VOL. v. 12 134 THE lJECL1 NJ AND FALL terest, had they recognized, in the Arabian prophet, the hope of Israel and the promised l\Iessiah. r-rheir obstinacy con- verted his friendship into implacable hatred, with which he pursued that unfortunate people to the last n10ment of his life; and in the double character of an apostle and a conqueror his persecution was extended to both worlds.I 35 The Kainoka dwelt at :I\íedina under the protection of the city; he seized the occasion of an accidental tumult, and summoned thCln to embrace his religion, or contend with him in battle. "Alas!" replied the treillbling Jews, " we are ignorant of the use of anTIS, but we persevere in the faith and worship of our fathers; why wilt thou reduce us to the necessity of a just defence 1 " The unequal conflict was terminated in fifteen days; anù it was with extrCllle reluctance that l\IahOlllet yielded to the iln- portunity of his allies, and consented to spare the lives of the captives. But their riches were confiscated, their arms be- came mure effectual in the hands of the lVIussulmans; and a wretched colony of seven hundred exiles was driven, with their wives and chilùren, to implore a refuge on the confines of Syria. The N adhirites were lllore guilty, since they con- Hpired, in a friendly interview., to assasinate the prophet. lIe besieged their castle, three miles fronl l\ledina; but their reso- lute defence obtained an honorable capitulation; and the gar- rison, sounding their trumpets and beating their drums, was permitted to depart with the honors of ,,\;ar. The Je\vs had excited and joined the war of the Koreish: no sooner had the nations retired frOll1 the ditch, than :Mahomet, without laying nsiùe his armor, marched on the same day to extirpate the hostile race of the children of Koraidha. After a resistance of twcnty-five days, they surrendered at discretion. They tru ted to th0 intercession of their old all ies of l\fedina; tlwy could no be ignurant that fanaticisln obliterates the feelings of humanity. A venerable elder, to whose judgmcnt they appealed, pronounced the sentence of their death: scyen hundred Jews were dragged in chains to the rnarket-place of the city; they descended alive into the grave prepared for their execution and burial; and the apostle beheld with an infh: xible eye the slaughter of his helpless enenlies. Their sheep aI:i 1 camels were inherited by the l\lussulmalls: three 135 The wars of :Mahomet agflinst the Jewish tribes of Kainoka, the Nadhirites, Koraidha, and Chaibar, are related by Abulfeda(p. 61,71, 77, 87, &c.) anù Ga llicr, (tom. ii. p. G1-G.3, 107--112, 139-148, 2lJ8 -294.) OF THE IlO.l\IAN El\IPIIlE. 135 hundred cuirasses, fi vc hunùreù pikes, a thousand la ::ces, composed the most useful portion of the spoil. Six days' journey to the north.east of l\1edina, the ancient and wealthy town of Chaibar was the seat of the Jewish power in Arabia: the territory, a fertile spot in the desert, was c vered with plantations and cattle, and protected by cight castles, SOllle of which were esteemed of irnpregnable strength. The forces of l\Iahomet consisted of two hundred horse and fourteen hun. dred foot: in the succession of eight regular and painful sieges they were exposed to danger, and fatigue, and hunger; and the nlOst undaunted chicfs despaired of the event. The apostle revived thcir faith and courage by the cxample of Ali, on whom he besto\ved the surnarne of the Lion of God: per. haps we may believe that a I-Iebrew champion of gigantic stature was cloven to the chest by his irresistible cimeter; but we cannot praise the modesty of rOlnance, which rep- resents him as tearing frOlll its hinges the gate of a fortress and wielding the ponderous buckler in his ]('ft hand.1 36 After the reduction of the castles, the town of Chaibar submittcd to the yoke. The chief of the tribe was tortured, in the presence of l\Iahomet, to force a confession of his hidden treasure: the industry of the shepherds,and husbandmen was rewarded with a precarious toleration: they were pern1itted, so long as it should please the conqueror, to.improve their patrimony, in equal shares, for his Clnolument and their own. Under the reign of Glnar, the. Je\,,'s of Chaibar were transplantcd to Syria; and the caliph alleged the injunction of his dying n1[l.ster, that one and the true religion should be professc(1 in his native land of Arabia.l 37 . l-i-'ive times each day the eyes of l\IahOlnet were turned towards l\Iccca,IJ and he was urged by the most sacred and powerful llloti ves to revisit, as a conqueror, the city and the 136 Abu Rafe, the servant of Iahomet, is said to affirm that he him- self, I1mI scven othcr men, afterwards tried, without sncceRS, to move' the same gate from the ground, (Abulfeda, p. ÐO.) Abu llafe \vas an cye-witne s, but who will be witness for Abu Rare? 137 The banishment of the Jews is attested by Elmacin (lIist. Sara- ccn, p. 9) and the great Al Zabari, (Gagnier, tC'm. ii. p. 28;;.) Yet Niebuhr (Description de l' \rabie, (p. 3:H) believes that the J ewi:;h religion, alld Karaite Rect, arc still profes cd by the tribe of C'haibar; and that, in the plunder of the caravans, the cliscipIes of 1\10:;e8 are t.he confederates I)f those of IaholIl('t. 13 The successÍ\'e Fitl'p:; of the redu(.tion of Iecca are related by Abulfetla (p. 81-87, D7-100, 10 -11l) and Gagnier, (tom. ii p,20? 13G THE DECl.INE AND FALL temple from \V hence he had been driven as an exile. The Caaha was present to his waking and sleeping fancy: an idle dream was translated into vision and prophecy; he unfurled the lioly banner; and a rash promise of success too hastily droppeù frmn the lips of the apostle. I-lis Inl.trch from l\leùina to l\/lecca displayed the peaceful and solen1n pomp of a pil- grimage: seventy camels, chosen and bedecked for sacrifice, precpded the van; the sacred territory was respected; and the captives were dismissed without ransom to proclailTI his clcln. cncy and devotion. nut no sooner did l\Iahomet descend into the plain, within a day's journey of the city, than he ex. claimed, '" They have clothed themselves with the skins of tigers:" the nmnbers and resolution of the Koreish opposed his progress; and the roving Arabs of the desert lTIight desert or betray a leader whom they had followed for the hopes of spoil. 'fhe intrepid fanatic sunk into a cool and cautious politician: he waived in the ti'eat.y his title of apostle of God; concluùed with the Koreish and their aHit's a truce of ten years; engaged to restore the fugitives of :l\1ecca who should elTIbrace his religion; and stipulated only, for the ensuing year, the humble privilege of entering the city as a friend, and of remaining three days to accomplish the rites of the pilgrimage. A cloud of shalTIe and sorrow hung on the retreat of the l\Il1ssuhnans, and t leil" disappointment 111ight justly 3-ccuse the failure uf a prophet who had so often appealed to the evidence of success. The faith and llOpe of the pilgrin1s were rekinJled by the prospect of .Mecca: their swords were RheaJ,hed ; *" seven times in the footsteps of the apostle they cncomnassed the Caaba: the Korcish had retired to the hills, I . and 1\lahomot, after the customary s crificc, evacuated iliû city on the fourth day. The people was edified by his deva. 1ion; the hostile chief.s were awed, or divided, or scduced; and both Kaleel and Amrou, the future conquerors of Syria and Egypt, most seasonably deserted the sinking cause of idolatry. The po\',,-er of Mahomet was increased by the sub. rnission of the Arabian tribes; ten thousand soldiers were assembled for the conquest of l\Iecca; and the idolaters, the -245, 300-322, tom. iii. p. 1-5R,) E1l1l dn, (Hist. Saracen. p. 8, 9, 10,) A.ùulpharagius, (Dynast. p. 103.) · This peaceful entrance into l\Iccca took place, acconling tu the tr<>a 1 .y. the following year. 'V cil, p. 20:!. - M. S:1;). OF THE RO::\'IAN E1\IPIRE. 137 weaker party, were easily convicted of violating the truce. EnthusiaslTI and discipline impelled the march, and pre erv('d the secret till the blaze of ten thousand fires proclaimed to the astonished KOl"ei:sh the design, the approach, and the-irre- sistible force of the enemy. The haughty .Abu Sophiall pre- sented the keys of the city, adlTIired the variety of anTIS and ensigns that passed before him in review; observed that the son of Abdallah had acquired a 111ighty kingdom, and COll- fessed, under the cimeter of Olna1', that he was the apostle of the true God.. The return of l\Iarius and Scylla was Btained with the blood of the Romans: the reveng of 1\la- homet was stimulated by religious zeal, and his injured followers were eager to execute or to prevent the order of a ITIaSSacre. Instead of indulging their passions anù his own,139 the victorio.us exile forgave the guilt, and united the factions, of .Mecca. His troops, in three divisions, marched into the city: eight-and-twenty of the inhabitants were slain by the sword of Caled; cleven 111en and six WOlTIen were proscribed by the sentence of l\lahomet; but he blan1ed the cruelty of his lieutenant; and several of the lTIOst obnoxious victilllS were indebted for their lives to his clemency or contelTIpt. The chiefs of the Koreish were prostrate at his feet. "'Vhat Illercy can you expect ffOl11 the man whOln you have wronged?" "\V e con fide in the generosity of our kins- 1nan." "And you shall not confide in vain: begone! you are safe, you are free." The pèople of l\Iec a deserved the r pardon by the profession of Islam; and after an exile of seven years, the fugitive missionary was enthroned as the prince and prophet of his natiye country.HU But the three hundred and sixty idols of the Caaba were ignominiously broken: the house of God was purified and adorned: as an 139 After the conquest of ::\lecca, the lahomet of Voltaire imarrines and perpetuateR the most horrid crimes. The poet confesses, th t he is not supporteù hy the truth of hi tory, and can only alle e, que cc1ui qui fait Ia guerre ä sa patrie au nom de Dieu, cst capable ùe tout, (illuvres de Voltaire, tom. xv. p. 282.) The ma'\:im is neither chari- taLlc nor philosophic ; and somc revercnce is surely due to the f:nne of hHoes and the religion of nations. I am informed that a Turkish amba5saclor at Paris was much scandalized at the representation of this tragedy. l-tO The 1IahQmetan doctors still dbpute, whether Iecca was re- duced hy force or consent, (Almlfeda J p. 107, et Gagnier ad locum;) and this verbal controversy is of 15 much moment as our o,,-n alJout 'Villiam the r: on 'J.uao1". 12 :II: 138 THE DECLINE AND FALL example to future times, tbe apostle again fulfilled the tluties of a pilgrim; and a perpetual law was enacted that no un- believer shoulLI dare to set his foot on the territory of the noly city.HI The conquest of 1\1ecca determined the faith and obedience of the .Arabian tribes; 142 who, according to the vicissitudes of fortune, had obeyed, or disregarded, the eloquence or the arms of the prophet. Indifference for rites and opinions still IDarks the character of the Bedol\leens; and they 111ight accept, as loosely as they hold, the doctrine of the Koran. y et a 1 obstinate relnnant still adhered to the religion and lib- erty of their ancestors, and the war of IIonnin derived a proper êlPpellation frOlD the idols, whon1 1\1ah01net had vo\ved to destroy, and whom the confederates of 'I'ayef had s\vorn to defend. 143 Four thousand Pagans advanced with secrecy and speed to surprise the conqueror: they pitied and despised the supine negligence of the Koreish, but they depended on the wishes, and perhaps the aid, of a people who had so lately renounced their gods, and bo\ved beneath the yoke of their enemy. The banners of 1\fedina and 1\1ecca were displayed by the prophet; a crowd of Bedoweens increased the strength or numbers of the army, and Í\velve thousand l\Iussulmans entertained a rash and sinful presulTIption of their invincible strength. They descended without precaution into the valley of Bonain: the heights had been occupied by the archers awl slingers of the confederates; thcir nUlTIbers were op- pressed, their discipline was confounded, thcir courage was appalled, and the Koreish smiled at their impending destruc- tion. The prophet, on his white mule, was encompassed by hI In excluding the Christians from the peninsula of Arabia, the proyince of Hcj a7., or the nayi{ ation of the Reù Sea, Char din CY o-yages en 1)e1"8e, tOlll. iy. p. 166) and Ueland (Dissertat. },Iiscell. tom. iii. p. 51) are n.lOre rigid than the ßlussulmans themselvcs. The Christians are received without scruple into the ports of :l\1ocha, and even of Uedda; and it is only the city and precincts of :Mecca that are inac- cessible to the profane, (Xiclmhr, De;;cription de l' Arabie, p. 308, 309. V oyao'c en Arabie, tom. i. p. 20.3, 24:8, &c.) 142 Abulfeda, p. 112-11.1. Gagnier, tom. iii. p.67-88. D'Herbo lot, l\loH.uDIED. 1.13 'Thc sie1re of 'fayef, divi:::;ion of thç spoil, &c., arf: related by Abulfeda (p. 117-123) and Gagnier, (tom. iii. p. 88- "I; I": is Al Jannabi who m('ntions the engines and engineer:::; of the 1Ó of D.qviI The fertile spot of Taycf yças supposed to be a IJiece 0\ '-he J.!1.11G. c- Dyria dctacl!cd and dropped in the gcnercl deluge. OF TIlE RO:\IAN El\IPIRE. 139 the cnelnics: ho attempted to rush against their spears in seareh of a glorious death: ten of his fa.ithful c.ompanions interposed their weapons and their breasts; throe of these fell dead at his feet: ,., 0 my brethren," he repeatedly cried, with sorrow and indignation, " 1 am the son of .Abdallah, I am the apostle of truth! 0 Inan, stand fast in the faith! 0 God, send down thy succor! " IIis uncIo Abbas, who, like the heroes of Homer, excelled in the loudness of his voice, Inade the valley resound with the recital of the gifts and pr0111ises of God: the flying 1\10s1en1s returned fron1 all sides to the holy standard; and l\lahomet observed ,vitli pleasure that the furnace was again rekindled: his conduct and ex- ample restored the battle, and he anilnated his victorious troops to inflict a merciless revenge on the authors of their shame. FrOln the field of I-Ionain, he Inarched without delay to the siege of Taycf, sixty miles to the south-cast of :Mecca, a for- tress of strength, whose fertile lands produce the fruits of Syria in the 111idst of the Arabian desert. A friendly tl'ibe, Instructed (1 know not how) in the art of sieges, supplied him with a train of battering-rams and n1ilitary engines, with a body of five hundred artificers. Dut it was' in vain that he offe 'ed freedom to the slaves of 'faycf; that he violated his own laws by the extirpation of the fruit-tre(>s; that the ground was opened by the miners; that the breach was assaulted by the troops. After a siege of twenty days, the prophet sounded a retreat; but he retreatE'd with a song of devout triumph, p.n(1 affected to pray for the repentance and safety of the unbe- âeving city. The spoil of this fortunate expedition mnounted to six thousand captives, twenty-four thousand cmnels, forty thousand sheep, and four thousand ounces of silver: a tribe who had fought at IIonain redeemed their prisoners by the sacrifice of their idols; but :l\Iahomet compensated the loss, l)y resigning to the soliliers his fifth of the plunder, and wishell, fol' their sake, that he possessed as many head of . cattle as there were trees in the province of Tehmna. ]11. stead of chastising the disaffection of the Koreish, he endeav- ored to cut out their tongues, (his own expression,) and to secure their attachment by a superior measure of liberality: Abu Sophian alone was presented with three hundred camels and twenty ounces of silver; and "Mecca was sincerely can.. verted to the profitable religion of the Koran. The jll{;illt.cs amI wl.viliarics complained, that they who had borne the lmrd( ll were Jleglectl" d in the season of victory 140 THE DECLINE AND FALL " Alas! " rèplied their artful leader," suffer me to conciliate these recent cnemie .. hese doubtful proselytes, by the gift of some perishable goods. To your guard I intrust 111Y life and fortunes. You are the companions of my exile, of lny kinzdonl, of 111Y paradise." He was followed by the depu- ties of Tayef, wh9 dreaded the repetition of a siege. "Grant us, 0 apostle of God! a truce of tbree years, with the tolera- tion of our ancient worship." "Not a n10nth, not an hour." ,.. Excuse us at least from the obligation of prayer." "\Vith. out prayer religion is of no avail." They submitted in silence: their temples were den10lished, and the same sentcnce of de- struction \\7as executed on all the iùols of Arabia. I-Iis lieu- tenants, on the shores of the Red Sea, the Ocean, and the Gulf of Persia, were saluted by the acclamations of a faithful people; and the ambassadors, who knelt before the throne of Medina, were as numerous (says the Arabian proverb) as the dittes that fall from the ll1aturity of a palIn-tree. 'I'he nation sublniÜed to the God and the sceptre of :l\Iahomet: tho opprobrious nanle of tribute was abolished: the spontaneous or reluctant oblations of arms and tithes were applied to the service of religion; and one Iml1l'red and fourteen thousand l\:t:oslems accOlnpanied the last pilgrinlage of the apostle.H 4 'Vhen I-Ieraclius returneù in triumph fr0111 the Persian war, he entertained, at Emesa, one of the anlbassadors of l\lahomC't, who invited the princes and nations of the earth to the profession of Islam. On this foundation the zeal of the Arabians has supposed the secret conversion of the Christian emperor: the vanity of the Greeks has feigned a personal visit of the prince of 1edina, who accepted from the royal bounty a rich dOlnain, and a secure retrC'nt, in the provinco of Syria.I 45 But the friendship of I-:Icraclil1s and 1\1aho111et was of short continuance: the new religion had inflamed ra her than assuaged the rarJacÌous spirit of the Saracens; and the l1mrdcr of an envoy afforded a decent pretence for invading, witI} three thousand soldiers, the territory of Pales îne, that extends to the eastward of the Jon1an. The holy" 1.,14 The last conquests and pilgrima;:;e of :Mahomet are contailletl in Abulfcda, (p. 121, 133,) Gagnier, (tom. iü. p. llD-21D,) Elmacin, (p. 10, 11,) Abulpharagius, (p. 103.) The ixth of the Hcgil'a was styled the Year of Embassies, (Gagnier, Not. ad Abulfeù. p. 121.) !4á Compare the bigoted....\.1 Jannabi apud Gagnier, tOlll. ü. p. 232 -25.3) with the no less bigoted Greek:;.;, Thcophancs, (p. 27G-278,) Zonuras , (tom. ii. 1. iv. p. 86 , ) and Ceclrcnu.s , (p. 421.) THE RO{.IAN E1\IPIRE. 111 banner was intrusted to Zeid; and such was the discipline or enthusiasi11 of the rising sect, that the noblest chief.-; served withuut reluctance under the slave of the prophet. On the event of his decease, Jaafar and Abdallah were successively substituted to the command; and if the three should perish in the war, the troops were authorized to elect their genet'a1. 1'he tlHce leaders were slain in the battle of 1\1 uta,14li the first 1nilitary actiun, which tried the valor of the :l\Ioslems against a foreign enemy. Zeid fdl, like a soldif'r, in the foremost ranks: the death of Jaafar was heroic and 1ne1110ra- ble: he lost his rjg>l1t hand: he shifted the standard to his kft: the left was spverc([ fr0111 hi bqdy: he embraced the standard with his b!eeding stU111pS, till he was transfixed to the ground with fifty honorable wounds. * ".Ad vance," cried Abdallah, who stepped into the vacant place, "advance with confidence: either victory or paradise is our own." The lance of a Roman decided the alternative; but the falling standard was rescued by Caled, the proselyte of l\lecca: nine swords were broken in his hand; and his valor withstood and repulsed the superior numbers of the Christians. In the noc- turnal council of the camp he was chosen to command: his skilful evolutions of the ensuing day secured either the victory or the retreat of the Saracens; and Caled is renowned among his brethren and his enemies by the glorious appellation of the Sword of God. In the pulpit, :Mahomet described, with prophetic rapture, the crowns of the blessed 1nartyrs; but in private he betrayed the feelings of human nature: he was surprised as he wept over the daughter of Zeirl: "\Vhat do I see?" said the astonished votary. " You see," replied the apostle, "a friend who is deploring the loss of his most faith. ful friend." After the conquest of l\Iecca, the sovereign of Arabia affected to prevent the hostile preparations of flerac- 146 For the battle of J\Iuta, and its consequences, see Abulfcda (p. 100-102) and Gagnier, (tom. ii. p. 327-343.) X lHJu; (SflYS Thcoph- Bues) ()v J..iyuVGI ,UI 7.(U aJ' TIJÙ BEVU. . * To console the amicted relatives of his kinsma.n Janffer, he plahom- et) representcd that, in P ha!'l been denominated JanHer tevaur, the winged J auffer. Pric(>, Chronu (;t;i cill Rl'trospect of Mohammedan History, "01. i. p. 5. -l\I. 1!2 THE DECLI E AND FALL lius; and solemnly proclaimed war against the R0111anS, without attempting to disguise the hardships and dangers of the enterprise. 147 '1'he 1\los1e111s were discouraged: they alk'ged the want of money, or horses, or provisions; the Reason of harvest, aud the intolerable heat of the summer: '" IIeB is lTIuch hotter," said the indIgnant prophet. lIe dis- dained to compel their service: but on his return he admon- ished the most guilty, by an excommunication of fifty days. "fheir desertion enhanced the Inerit of Abubeker, Othman, and the faithful con1panions who devoted their lives and for- tunes; and 1\lahol11et di played his banner at the head of teu [housand horse and twenty ,thousand foot. Painful indeed was the distress of the march: lassitude and thirst were a 6 gravatcd by the scorching and pestilential winds of the desert: ten men rode by turns on the same camel; and they \\'ere reduced to the shameful necessity of drinking the water fl-om the belly of that useful animal. In the mid-way, ten days' journey frOlTI r Icdina and Dmnascus, they reposed near the grove arid fountain of Tabuc. Beyond that place 1\lahomet declined the prosecutiön of the war: he declared himself satisfied with the peaceful intentions, he WtlS 1110re probably daunted by the martial array, of the emperor of the East. nut the active and intrepid Ca1cd spread around the terror of his name; alH] the prophet received the sublnission of the tribes and cities, from the Euphrates to Ailah, at the head uf the Red Sea. To his Christian subjects, :l\Jahomet readily granteù the security of their persons, the freedom of their trade, the property of their goods, anù the toleratioll of their worship.148 The weakness of their Arabian brethren 147 The expedition of Tahue is recorded by our ordinary historians, Abulfeda (Vit. Ioham. 1). 123-1 7) and Ga 6 nier, (Vie de )iahomet, tom. iii. p. 1-17-163:) but we ha.ve the a(h-anta e of appealing to the origin.al eviden e of the Koran, (c. 9, p. 154, 165,) with ale's learned awl rational notes. 11 The DtpLun2a sccuritatis' Ai1cnsibliS is attested by Ahmed Den Joseph, and the author Libri Splcnrlorllm, (Gagnier, Xot. ad Abulfe- dam, p. 12,) j) but Abulfeda himself, as well as Elmacin, (IIi t. Sara- cen. p. 11,) though he owns ::Mahomet's l'egard for the Christians, (p. la,) only mentions peace and tribute. In the year 1G30, Sionita pub.. li:;hed at l)aris the text and vcrsion oÎ Iahomet'f: ratent in favor of the Christians; 'which was admitted and reprobatcd by the opposite tf1,;te of Salmasius and Grotiu , (Bayle, :\IAHO}IET, Hem. A.A...) Hot- tinger doubts of its authp.nticity, (lEst. Oricnt. p. 237;) Renaudot urges the consent of the Iahometans, (llist. I)atriarch. Alex. p. IG!) j) Imt :\Io::lheim (Ilist. Eccles. p. 241) ShO"\,"8 the futility of thcir opinion, OF THE ROl'oIAN E:\IPIRE. 113 had restrained thenl from opposing his anlbiLion; the disci- ples of Jesus were endeared to the enemy of the Jews; ni it was the interest of a conqueror to propose a fair capitula- tion to the 1110st powerful religion of the earth. Till the age of sixty-three years, the strength of l\fahomct was equal to the ten1poral and spiritual fatigues of his mission. lIis epileptic fits, an absurd calumny of the Greeks, would be an object of pity rather th:1n abhorrence; 119 but he seriously believed that he \vas poisoned at Chaibar by the revenge of a Jewish female.I Jo During four years, the health of the prophet declined; his infirmities increa-sed ; but his mortal disease was a fever of fourteen days, which deprived him by. intervals of the llse of reason. As soon as he was conscious of his dan- ger, he edified his brethren by the hlllnility of his virtue or pcnitence. "If there be any man," said the apostle from the pulpit, "" whom I have unjustly scourged, I submit Iny own b:::tck to the lash of retaliation. I-Iave I aspersed the reputa- tion of a r lussulman? let him proclaim my thoughts in the face of the congregation. lIas anyone been despoiled of his goods? the little that I possess shall cOlnpensate the principal and the interest of the debt." " Yes," replied a voice fron1 and Ll1clines to beliove it spurious. Yet Abulpharagius quotes the impostor's treaty with the estorian patriarch, ( \.8 eman. Bibliot. Ol'ient. tom. ii. p. 418 ;) but Abulpharabiu3 wal primate of the Jacob- ites. )49 The epil psy, or falling-sieknesf;, of :Mahomet is asserted by Theophanes, Zonaras, and the rest of the Greeks; and is greedily swallowed by the gross bigotry of Hottinger, (Rist. Orient. p. 10, 11,) Priùeaux, (Life of .Mahomet, p. 1 ,) and Iaracci, (tom. ii. \l oran, p. 762, 76:3.) The titlc3 (the wrapped-up, tlte covered) of two chapter of the Koran (73, 74) can hardly be straincd to such an interpretation: the silence, the i::illOranCe of the Iahometan commentators, is 1110re conclusive than the mo:;t peremptory denial; and the eharitahle ...i-le i;; e<;pouqed by Ockley, (llist. of the Saracens, tom. i. p. 301,) Ga311ier, (ad Abulfedam, p. 9. Yie de l\Iahomet, tom. i. p. 118,) aud Sale, (Koran, p'- 4tj!)-4í 1.)* liiO This poison (more i jl0minious since it "\vas offered as a test of hi.'; prophetic kuO\vletlge) i:,; frankly eonfe sed by his zealous votaric , Ahulfeda (p. 92) and AI Jaunabi, (apucl Gagnier, tOlll. ii. p. 2SG- 2S8. ) · Dr. 'Veil believes in the epilepsy, and adduces strong cvidence for it; a l surely it lUay be believed, in perfect charit) ; and tllat the prophc::s n lOns were com\pctcd, as they appoar to have be-en, with th(' e tits. J. ha.ve little G.'Hlbt that IH' saw :l1lC[ l.H.,ECH,a tl1('.,e vi-.;i,J1ls, all l visiun:; tÍley 'erc. \Veii, p. 4:]. -1\1. Ilil,. 1-1.1 TIlE DEÇLINE AND FALL the crowd, "I am entitIed to three drmTIs of silver." l\la- hornet heard the complaint, satisfied the demand, and thanked bis creditor for accusing him in this ,,,"orld rather than at the day ,ùfjudgment. He beheld with temperate firmness the approach of death: enfranchised his slaves (seventeen men, as they arE,. n lmed, and elevcn women;) 111inutely directed the order of his funeral, and lTIoderated the lamentations of his weeping friends, 011 wh01n he bestowed the benediction of peace. Till tIle third day before his demh, he regularly perfonned the function of public prayer: the choice of Abubeker to supply his place, appeared to 111ark that ancient and faithful friend as his successor in the sacerdotal and regal office; but he prudently declined the risk and envy or a more explicit nomination. At a moment when his faculties were visibly impair('cl, he caned for pen and ink to write, or, more .prop- erly, to dictate, a divine book, the sum and accOlnplish- lTIent of all his reve1ations: a dispute arose in the Ch ullber, whether he should be allovTed to supersede the authority of th(' Koran; and the prophet was forced to reprove the inùe- cent vehen1cnce of his disciples. If the slightest credit nlay be aflòrdeù to the traditions of his wives and companions, he Dlaintaincd, in the bosom of his family, and to the last 1110- 10ents of his life, the dignity * of an apostle, and the faith of an nthusiast; described the visits of Gabriel, who bade an cverlasting farewell to the earth, and expressed his 1iyely con- fidence, not. only of the mercy, but of the favor, of the Su- preme Being. In a fmniliar discourse he had mentioned his special prerogative, that the angel of death was not allowed to take his soul till he had respectfully asked the permis ion of the prophet. The request was granted; and l\Iahomet imlTIediately fell into the agony of his dissolution: his head . )vas reclined on the lap of Ayesha, the best beloved of all his * :Major Price, who writes with the authority of one widely conversant with the original sources of Eastern knowleùg<:, and in a very candid tone, takes a very different view of the prophet's death. "In tracing the cir- cumstances of i\lahommed's illness, we look in vain for any proofs of that meek and heroic firmness which might be expected to dignify and embel- lish the last moments of the apostle of God. On some occasions he be- trayed such 'want of fortitude, snch marks of childish impatiellce, as are in cncral to be found in men only of the most orùina:"y stamp; and such as E"\.torted from his \\ ife Ayesha, in particular, the sarca tic remade, th. rricc, \"01. i. p. 13. --:\1 OF THE ROl\IAN El\II:IIiE. J.45 wives; he fainted with the violence of pain; recovering his spirits, he raised his eyes towards the roof of the house, and, with a steady look, though a faltering voice, uttered the last broken, though articulate, words: "0 God! . . . . . pardon my sins. . . . . . Yes, . . . . . . I come, .... among n;y fellow-citizens on high; " and thus peaceably expired on a carpet spread upon the floor. An expedition for the con- quest of Syria was stopped by this mournful event: the army halted at the gates of l\Iedina; the chiefs were assembled ruund their dying master. The city, more especially the house, of the prophet, was a scene of clamorous sorrow or silent despair: fanaticism alone could suggest a ray of hope and consolation. "How can he be dead, our witness, our interces- sor, our medmtor, with God? By God he is not dead: like Moses and Jesus, he is wrapped in a holy trance, and speedily will he return to his faithful people." The evidence of sense was disregarded; and Omar, unsheathing his cimeter, threat- ened to strike off the heads of the infideJs, who should ,'are to affinn that the prophet Wé\S no lTIOrc. The tumult was appeased by the weight and 111oderation of Ab beker. "Is it :Mahomet," said he to Omar and the multitude, or the God of l\Iahomet, whOln YOll worship? The God of Ma- homet liveth forever; but the apostle was a mortal like our- selves, and according to his own prediction, he has experi- enced the common fate of lllortality." I-Ie was piously in- terred by the hands ùf his nearest kinsman, on the same spot on which he expired: 151 l\Iedina has been sanctified by the death and burial of MahOlllet; and the innumerable pilgrÏIns lál The Greeks and Latins have invented and propagated the vulgar and ridiculous story, that Iahomet's iron tomb is suspended in the air at .Jlecca, (a'ì.iw flHEOI!:( Ó lEJ'OJ', Laonicus Chalcondyles, de Rebus Turcicis, 1. iü. p. 66,) by the action of equal and potent loadstones, (Dictionnaire de Bayle, :UAHOJIET, Hem. EE. FF.) 'Vithout any philosophical inquiries, it may suffico, that, 1. The prophet was not turied at Mecca; and, 2. That his tomb at 1Ieclina, which has been ,'i ited by millions, is placed on the ground, (Reland, de Relig. Mo- ham. 1. ii. c. 19, p. 209-211. Gagnier, Vie d0 Mahomet, tom. ill. p 263-2ü8.). · According to the testimony of all the Eastern authors, Mahomet died on :\Ionday the 12th Reby 1st, in the year 11 of the Hegira, which answers in reality to the 8th June, G32, of J. C. 'Ve find in Oekley (Hist. of Sara- cells) that it was on :Monday the 6th June, 632. This is a mistake; for the 6th June of that )'ear was a Saturday, not a Monday; the 8th June, therefore, was a ::\Ionday. It is easy to discover that the lunar year, in his calculation, has been cOllfoullùed with the solar. St. Martin, vol. xi. p. 186. -1\1. VOL.V. 13 146 THE DECLINE AND FALL of l\{eC\?rl often tu 'n aside from the way, to bow, In voluntary de,rotion,152 before the simp1e tomb of the prophet.I 53 At the conclusion of the life of :Mahon1et, it may perhaps be expected, that I should balance his faults and virtues, that I should decide whether the title of enthusiast or impos- tor lTI01'e properly belongs to that extraordinary nlan. Had I been intimately conversant with the son of Abdallah, the task would still be difficult, and the success uncertain: at the dis- tance of twelve centuries, I darkly contemplate his shade through a cloud of religious incense; and could I truly de- lineate the portrait of an hour, the fleeting resemblance would not equally apply to the solitary of 1\lount Hera, to the preacher of lVIecca, and to the conqueror of Arabia. The author of a mighty revolution appears to have been endowed with a pious and contemplative disposition: so soon as mar- riage had raised hirn above the pressure of want, he avoided the paths of ambition and avarice; and till the age of forty, ]w lived with innocence, and would have died without a name. 'fhe unity of God is an idea most congenial to nature and reason; and'a slight conversation with the Jews and Christians would teach hinl to despise and detest the idol- at1y of l\lecca. It was the duty of a rnan and a citizen to 11llpart the doctrine of salvation, to rescue his country frorn the dominion of sin and error. The energy of a mind inces- santly bent on the same object, would convert a general obli- gation into a particular call; the warm suggestions of the understanding or the fancy would be felt as the inspira- tions of Heaven; the labor of thought ,vould expire in rapture and vision; and the inward sensation, the invisible n1onitor, would be described with the fornl and attributes of an angel of Goù.1 54 FrOlIl enthusiasnl to imposture, the step 152 Al Jannabi enumerates (Yie de j\Iahomet, tom. iii. p. 37 -391) the multifarious duties o a pilgrim who visits the tombs of the prophet and his companions; and the learneù casuist decides, that this act of devotion is nearest in obligation and merit to a divine precept. The doctors are divided which, of Iccca or :l\1edina, be the most ex- cellent, (p. 391-394.) 153 The last sickness, death and burial of ßlahomet, are described by Ahulfeda and Gagnier, (Yit. Iohall1. p. 133-112. Vie de Ia- homet 1.aml. iii. p. 220-271.) The most private and intere::;ting cir- cum8t .1.:1\J'3, they might repeat the pious talc to a second or third ger .. eratit\n , T pilgrims. N. Tb.1J (;hristians, ra.:ïhly enough, have as&igned to :.M:aho-mst " OF TIlE ROl\IAN EMPIRE. 147 is neli:ous and slippery: the dæmon of Socrates 153 affords a nlCl110rable instance, how a wise man may deceive him- self, how a good mal1 may deceivc others, how the con- sl ience may slumber in a mixed and middle state between self-illusion and voluntary fraud. Charity may believe that the original rnatives of l\Iahomet were those of pure and gen- uine benevolence; but a human 111issiomll'Y is incapable of cherishing tIw obstinate unbelievers who reject his claim , despise his arguments, and persecute his life; he Inight for- give his personal adversaries, he may lawfully hate the enc- Inies of God; the stern passions of pride and revenge were kindled in thc bosom of l\Iahornet, and he sighed, like the prophet of Nineveh, for the destruction of the rebels whom l?c had condemned. The injustice of l\Iecca and the choicc of . l\ledina, transformed the citizen into a prince, the humble preacher into the leader of armies; but his sworù was consecrated by the example of the saints; and the same God who afflicts :;: sillful world with pesÛlence and earthquakes, might inspire for their conversion or chastisement the valor of his servants. In the exercise of political go'"ernment, he was compelled to abate of the stern rigor of fanaticism, to com- ply in some measure with the prejudices and passions of his followers, and to employ even the vices of mankinJ as the ÍnstrUl11ents of their salvation. The use of fraud and perfidy, of cruelty and injustice, were often subservient to the propa- gation of the faith; and l\Iahomet con1Jnandcd or approved tame pigeon, that seemed to descend from heaven and whisper in his ear. As this pretended miracle is urged by Grotius, (de Yeritate Re- ligionis Christianæ,) his Arabic translator, the lcarned Pocock, incluired of him the names of his authors; and Grotius confcs;;ed, that it is unknown to the Iahometans themselve:";. l.ost it should provoke their inrlignation ancllaughtcr, the pious lie is suppresseJ in the Ara- bic version; but it ha::; maintained ail eù'ifying place in the numerous editions of the Latin text, (Pocock, Specimcn, Hist. Arabum, p. lSG, 187._ Ueland, de TIeligioll. Ioham. 1. ii. c. 39, p. 2':;9-262.) 5a ) E LOl åì: TOt:TÚ Èr'TIJ' fi! nwciò; à ú.w:J UJ', cpwJ-'tj TtÇ ytY1'OftÉJ'l/ í íjcu.v rh,/Tat ÙE l txn OT(!fn Et U E TOl TrJV Ô uv !tl^;'(t) nf), 1 TEl 1", nOO"[TiÚCEl (JÈ oil 1[01 E (Plato, in Apolog. Socrat. c. 10, 'p. 121, '122, edit. Fischer.) '1'11(,\ familiar examples, which 80crat(,5 urges in his DialoO"ue with Thea(Te' , (]!laton. Opera, tom. i. p. 128, 12i), edit. lIen. 8tep11an.) are beY lld the reach of human foresight; and the divine in piratioll (the Lft" Ú- . (OJ!) of the philosopher is clearly tauJht in the IeU1orabilia oÏ Xcno. p} on. The ideas of the most rational Plato..:.1Ìsts are expre3:::cù bJ CiCcro, (de DiTinat. i. 51,) and in the xivth an,l xvth Di.;"prt::\t1unc: ,'f : raximl' of T:1"c, p. 1.53.-) 72, edit. Dayi .) 148 THE Dr.CLIN E AND FALL the nss:lssination of the Jev\Js and idolaters who had escaped from the field of battle. By the repetition of such acts, the character of l\lahomct Inust have heen gradually stained; and the influence of SL1C pernicious habits would be poorly com- pensated by the practice of the personal and social virtues which are necess3.l'Y to Inaintain the reputation of a prophet among his sectaries and friends. Of his last years, ambition was the ruling passion; anlI a politician will su pcct, that he secretly sn1Ïled (the victorious impostor!) at the enthusiuSlll of his youth, and the credulity of his proselytes.I 5G A phi- losopher will observe, that their credulity and his success ,,,ould tend more stron ly to fortify the assurance of his d yine lTIission, that his interest and religion were inseparably connected, and that hid conscience would be soothed by the persuasion, that he alone was absolved by the Deity fron1 the obligation of positive and moral laws. If he retained any vestige of his native innocence, the sins of :Mahomet 111a y be allowed as an evidence .of his sincerity. In th support of truth, the arts of fraud and fic1ion may be deelTIed less crimi- nal; and he v,Tould have started at the foulness of the IDeans, had he not been satisfied of the importance and justice of the end. Even in a conqlleroi' or a priest, I can surprise a word or action of unaffected humanity; and the decree of 1\1a- homet, that, in the sale of captives, the mothers should never be separated from their children, may suspend, or lTIoderate, the censure of the historian.I 57 The good sense of l\lahomet 1;:;8 despised the pomp of roy- alty: the apostle of God submitted to the 111enial offices of the family: he kindled the fire, swept the floor, lTIilked the 156 In some passage of his voluminous writingr-;, Voltaire compares the prophet, ill his old agc, to a fakir, "qui détache la chaîne de son cou pour en donner sur les orei11es à. ses confrères." }j7 Gagnier relateR, ,';ith the same impartial pen, this humane law of the prophet, and the murders of Ca b, and Sophian 1 which he prompted and approved, (Vie de Iah':."nnet, tom.. ii. p. 69, 97, 208.) 158 For the domestic life of I:1homet, consult Gagnier, and the C'oncsponding chapters of Abulfcda; for his diet. (tom. iii. p. 285- 288;) his chilclren, (p. 180, 289;) his wive'" (p. 29{)-303;) his mar- riage with Zeineb, (tom. ii. p. 1,)2-160;) his amour with IarT, (p. 303-300;) the fal:;c accusation of Aye-;ha, tp. 186-1 9.) The most orif"l"innl cyidence of the three last transactions is cont3.ined in the .::> xxiyth, xxxiiicl, and lxvith chapters of the Koran, with Sale's Com- mentary. l'ridcaux (Life of "\Iahomet, p. 80-90) and Iar3.cci (Pro- drom. AlcOl':111, part iv. p. .L -.)J) have malieiously exaggerated the Ü.ailtic3 of l\lahoD1 ct. O}' THE ROl\IAN E...\IPIRE. 1<19 ewes, and mendc4 with his own hands his shoes and Ius woollen ganllent. Disdaining the penanc and Inerit of a hermit, he obsf)r\'ed, without effort or \-anity the abstemious diet of an Arab and a soldier. On solCllln occasions he feasted his companions with rustic and hospitable plenty; but in his domestic life, Inany weeks would elapse without a. fire being kindled on the hearth of the prophet. The inter- diction of wine was confirmed by his example; his hunger was appeased with a sparing allowance of barley-bread: he delighted in the taste of 111ilk and honey; but his ordinary food consi teù of dates and water. Perfumes and won1en were the two sensual enjoyrnents which his nature required, and his religion did not forùid; and l\fahomet affirmed, that the fervor of his devotion was increased by these innocent pleasures. The heat of the clil11ate inflan1es the blood of the Arabs; and their libidinous complexion has been noticed by the writers of antiquity.!.)!) Their incontinence was regulated by the civil and religious laws of the Koran: their incestuous alliances were bimned; the boundless license of polyganlY was reduced to four legitimate wives or concubines; their rights both of bed and of dowry "vere equitably deterrnilleù ; the freedom of divorce was discouraged, adultery was con- demned as a capital offence; and fornication, in either sex, was punished with a hundred stripes.l GO Such were the calm and rational precepts of the legislator: but in his private con- duct, l\IahOlnet indulged the appetites of a man, and abused the claill1S of a prophet. A special revelation dispensed him from the laws which he had imposed on his nation: the female sex, without reserve, was abanùoned to his desires; and this singular prerogative excited the envy, rather than the scandal, the veneration, rather than the envy, of the devout l\Iussul. mans. If we rernember the seven hundred wives and three hundred concubines of the wise Solomon, we shall applaud the modesty of the Arabian, who espoused no more than sev- enteen or fifteen wives; eleven are enumerated WllO oecupied at :l\Iedina theil' separate apartments round the house of the apostle, and enjoyed in their turns the favor of his conjugal 1 9 Incredibile est quo ardorc apuù. eos in Yenerem uterque solvitur sexus, (.Ammian. larccllin. 1. xiv. c. 4.) 160 Sale (Preliminary Di::;COlUSC, p. 133-137) has recapitulated the laws of marriage, divorce, &c.; and the curiou::J reader of Selden's Uxor Hebraica will recognize lnany Jewish ordiIJ nllces. 13 =if I!JO THE DLCLINE AND F LL society. '''hat is singular enough, they were all widowB, excepting only Ayesha, the daughter of Abubckcr. She was doubtless a virgin, since l\Iaholllet consul1lmated his nuptials (such is the premature ripeness of the clinlute) when she ,-vas only nine years of age. The youth, the beauty, the spirit of Ayesha gave her a superior ascendant: she was beloved and trusted by the prophet; anù, after his death, the daughter of _"i.bubeker was long revered as the rnothcr of the faithful. Her behavior hud been ambiguous and ind iscrcet: in a noc.. turnal 111arch she was accidentally left behind; and in the lllorning .A.yesha returned to the can1p ,vith a 111an. The telnper of 1\I'1ho111et was inclined to jealousy; but a divine l'evel.ation assured him of her innocence: he chastised her accusers, and published a law of domestic peace, that no \VO- Inal1 should be condemned unless four Illalc witnesses had seen her in the act of adultery.161 In his adventures with Zeineb, the wife of Zeid, and with l\lary, an Egyptian captive, the an1orous prophet forgot the interest of his reputation. At the house of Zeid, his freedman and adopted son, he beheld, in a loose undress, the beauty of Zeineb, and burst forth iuto an ejaculation of devotion and desire. The servile, or grate- ful, frf'edmàn understood the hint, and yielded without hesita- tion to the love of his benefactor. But as the filial relation had excited some doubt and scandal, the angel Gabriel descended fro1l1 heaven to ratify the deed, to annul the adop- tion, anù gently to reprove the apostle for distrusting the indulgence of his God. One of his wives, Hafna, the daughter of Omar, surprised him on her own bcd, in the en1braces of his Egyptian captive: she promised s('crecyand forgiveness; he swore that he would renounce the pos5ession of :Mary. Both p lrties forgot their engagements; and Gabriel again descended with a chapter of the Koran, to absolve hin1 from his oath, and to exhort hiln freely to enjoy his captiveH and concubines, without listening to the clamors of his wives. In a solitary retreat of thirty days, he labored, alone with l\Iary, to fulfil the COlnmands of the angel. '''hen his love and revenge were satiated, he smnlnoned to his presence his cleven wives, reproached their disobedience and indiscretion, 161 III a memorable case, the Caliph Omar decided that all presump- tive eviùence ,,,,as of no avail; and that ail the four witnesses must have actually seen sty-lum in pyxide, (Ablllfedæ Annalcs Moslemici, p. 71, vcrs. Rciske.) OF THE ROll,IAN Er.iJ.PIRE. 151 and threatened them with a sentence of divorce, both in this world and ill the next; a dreadful sentence, since those who had ascended the bed of the prophet were forever excluded from the hope of a second m.arriage. Perhaps the inconti- nence of :l\Iahomet l11ay be palliated by the tradition of his natural or preternatural gifts; 162 he united the manly virtue of thirty of the children of Adam: and the apostle might rival the thirteenth labor 163 of the Grecian I-Iercules.l 64 A more serious and decent excuse may be drawn from his fidelity to Cadijah. During the twenty.four years of their marriage, her youthful husband abstained Ü..om the right of polygan1Y, and the pride or tenderness of the venerable matron was never insulted by the society of a rival. After her death, he placed her in the rank of the four perfect won1en, with the sister of :f\/loses, the mother of Jesus, and Fatima, the best beloved of his daughters. " Was she not old?" said A yeshå, with the insolence of a bloon1ing beauty; has not God given you a better in her place 1 " " No, by God," said l\iahomet, with an effusion of honest gratitude, "there never can be a better! She belieyed in me when men despised n1e; she relieved my wants, when I was poor and persecuted by the world." 165 In the largest indulgence of polygamy, the founder of a religion and cmpire might aspire to multiply the chances of a numerous posterity and a lineal succession. The hopes of Mahomet were fatally disappointed. The virgin Ayesha, and his tcn widows of mature age and approved fertility, were 162 Sibi l'obur ad generationcm, quantum triginta yiri habellt, in esse jactaret: ita ut unicà horá posset undecim fæuinic;; satisfacere, ut ex AJ.'abum Iibris refert Stus. Petrus Paschasius, c. 2, ( Iaracci, Prodro- mus Alcoran, p. iv. p. 55. See likewise Observations de Belon, I. iií. c. 10, fol. 179, recto.) AI Jannabi (Gagnier, tom. iii. p. 287) records his own testimony, that he surpassed all men in conjugal vigor; and Abulfeda mentions the exclamation of Ali, who washed his body after his death, "0 propheta, certe penis tuus cælu:ä1 versus erectus cst,' in Vito :Mohammcd, p. 140. lti3 I borrow the style of a father of the church, ÈJ'<<$ì.EVWJI cII(!w!llì 'CQllTY.CtlðhW'fIJJ' ;;'0).01'., (Greg. Nazian7.en, Orate iii. p. 108.) JG4 The common and most glnrious legcnd includcR, in a single night, the fifty "ictories of Hercules over the virgin daughters of Thestius, (Diodor. SicuL tom. i.l. iv. p. 274.. Pausanias, 1. ix. p. 763. St tius Sylv. 1. i. eleg. iii. v. 42.) But Athenæus allows seven nights, (Deipnosophist, 1. xiii. p. á56,) and Apollodorus fifty, for this arduous achievement of Hercules, who was then no more than eighteen years of age, (Bibliot. 1. ii. c. 4, p. 111, cum notis Heync, part i. p. 332.) Qe Abulfcda in Vito Ioham. p. 12, 13. 16, 17, CtUn N{'Itis G cr. 152 THE DECLINE AND FALL barren in his potent embraces. The four sons of Cadijah died in their infancy. l\Iary, his Egyptian concubine, was endeared to him by the birth of Ibrahim. At the end of fifteen months the prophet wept over his grave; but he sustained with firm.. ness the raillery of his enemies, and checked the adulatiOI or credulity of the l\IosIems, by the assurance that an eclipse of the sun was not occasioned by the death of the infant. Ca:ii.. jah had likewise given him four daughters, who were married to the most faithful of his disciples: the three eldest died before their father; but Fatima, who possessed his confidence and love, becmne the wife of her cousin Ali, and the mother of an ilJust:rious progeny. The merit and misfortunes of Ah and his descendants will lead me to anticipate, in this place, the series of the Saracen caliphs, a title which describes the commanders of the faithful as the vicars and successors of the apostlë of God.I 66 The birth, the alliance, the character of AJi, which e alted him above the rest of his countrymen, Inight justify his clainl to the vacant throne of Arabia. The son of Abu Taleb was, in his own right, the chief of the family of Hashem, and the hereditary prince or guardian of the city and temple of l\Iecca. The light of propnecy was extinct; but the husband of Fatin1[\ might expect the inheritance and blessing of her father: the Arabs had sometimes been patient of a female reign; and the two grandsons of the prophet Imd often been fondled in his ]ap, and shown in his pulpit, as the hope of his age, and the chief of the youth of pal'adise. The first of the true be- lievers might aspire to march before them in this wo:rld and in the next; and if some we1"e of a graver and more rigid cast, the zeal and virtue of Ali were never outstripped by any recent proselyte. He united the qualifications of a poet, a soldier, and a saint: his wisdcm still breathes in a collection of rnoral and reiigious sayings; 167 and every antagonist, in lð6 This outline of the Arabian history is drawn from the Biblio- thèque Orientale of D'IIerbelot, (under the names of Aooubecre, Omar Othman, Ali, &c.;) from the Annaht of Abulfeda, Abulphar-àgius, and Elmacin, (under the proper years of the llegi'J"a,) and especially from Ockley's History of the Saracens, (vol. i. p. 1-10, 116-122, 229,249, 3G3-372, 378-391, and almost the whole of the spcond volume.) Yet we should weigh with caution the traditions of the hostile sects; a stream which becomes still more muddy as "it flows farther from. tne source. Sir John Chanlin has too faithfully copied the fdbles and errors of the modern Persians, (V oyagcs, tom. ii. p. 235-250, &c.) )17 Ockley (at the end of his second volume) has given an English OF THE RO.i\I.c\.N EI\1PIRE. 15 the combats of the tongue or of the sword, was subdued by his eloquence and valor. Fronl the first hour of his 111i"sion to the last rites of his funeral, the apostle was never forsaken b) a generous friend, whom he delighted to name his brother, his vicegerent, and the faithful Aaron of a second 1\loses. The son of A.bu Taleb was afterwards reproached for neglect- ing to secure his intp-rest by a solO111n declaration of his right, which would have silenced all competition, and sealed his succession by the decrees of !-leaven. But the unsuspecting hero confided in hinlself: the je3.1ousy of empire, and perhaps the fear of opposition, i11ight suspend the resolutions of l\Ia- hornet; and the bed of sickness was besieged by the artful Aye::;ha, the daughter of Abubeker, and the enemy of Ali.'ÌÍ' The sIlence and death of the prophet restored the liberty of the people; and his companions convened an assCll1ùly to deliberate on the choice of his successor. The hereditary claim and lofty spirit of Ali were offensive to an aristocracy of elders, desirous of bestowing and resuming the sceptre by a free and frequent election: the Koreish could never be reconciled tu the prouù preëminence of the line of IIashCln; the ancient discord of the tribes was rekindled, the jllgitivtj of :Mecca anù the auxiliaries of l\1cùina asserted their re pec. tive Inerits; and the rash proposal of choosing two indepclld.. version of 160 sentences, which he ascribes, with some he itation, t( Ali, the son of .Abu Taleb. His preface iH colored by the enthu iasm, of a translator; )ret these sentcnces delineate a characteristic, thong}. dark, picture of human life. * Gibbon wrote chiefly from the Arabic or Sunnitc account of these transactions, the only sources accessible at the time \\'hen he composed hi'i History. Major Price, writing from Persian authorities, aífords us the a(hauta e of comparing throughout what may b(' fairly consiùl'red the SI1Ïite Version. ThC' p;lory of Ali is the constant burden of their strain. He' was destined, and, according to some accounts, d.esignated, for the calip ate by the P!ophet; but. while the oth rs were fiercdy pushing- their own mterests, All was watchmg the re:nam5 of Iahomct with pipus fidelity. His disinterested magnanimity, on each scpante of'ca.sion, de cli led the s eptre. an.d gave. the oble .cxample of obedience to the ap l)(llnted callph. lIe 1S descnbed, 111 retIremcnt, on the throne, Llud in the fidd of battle, as transcenùently pious, 111agnanÍlllous, valiant, a1111 hu- Inane. . He lost his empire through hi::> excess of virtue and 100-e for the faithful; his life through his confidence in God, and suLmi::;sion to tho decrees of fate. Compare the cürious account of this apathy in Price, chap. Ii. It is to be re retted, I must add, that :Major rrice has contcnted himself wit.h quoting the names of the Persian work which he follows, without allY account of their character, age, and authorit,Y. -:\1. 15-1 THE DECLINE AND :FALL . cnt caliphs would have crushed in their infancy the religion and empire of the Saracens. The tUlTIult was appeased by the disinterested resolution of 0111a1', who, suddenly renounc- ing his own pretensions, stretched forth his hand, and declared himself the first subject of the 111ild and venerable Abubeker.* 1"'he urgency of the n10111ent, and the acquiescence of the people, lnight excuse this illegal and precipitate Ineasure; but On1a1' himself confessed frorTI the pulpit, that if any 1\lus- suhnan should hereafter presume to anticipate the suffrage of his brethren, both the elector and the elected would be worthy of death.l 68 After the simple inaugt1ration of Abubeker, he was obeyed in l\Iedina, r iecca, and the provinces of Arabia: the Hashen1Ítcs alone declined the oath of fidelity; and their chief, in his own house, n1aintained, above six 1110nths, a sul- len and independent reserve; without listening to the threats of Omar, who 3;ttempted to consume with fire the habitation of the daughter of the apostle. The death of Fatinla, and the decline of his party, subdued the indignant spiri.t of Ali: he condescended to s :dute the comnlander of the faithful, ac- cepted his excuse of the necessity of preventi lg thC'ir common eneD1Îes, and wisely rèjccted !Jis courteous cfTei' of abdicating the government of the Arabians. 1\.fte1' a reign of two years, the aged cali ph was smnmoned by the angel of death. In his testmnent, with the tacit approbation of his cOlnpanions, he bequeathed the sccptre to the finn anù intrepid virtue ot Omal'. "I have no occasion," said the n10dest canùidate, " for the place." "But the place has occasion for you," replied .rlbubeker; who expired with a fervent prayer, that the God of l\Ltfl0111et would ratify his choice, and direct the Iussuhnal1s in the \vay of concord and obedience. The prayer was not incHcctual, since Ali hilnsclf, in a life of privacy and prayer, professed to revere the snperior worth and dignity of his rival; who c0111fortcd hirn for the loss of empire, by tlJe lnost [latter. ing lnarks of confidence anù esteem. In the twelfth year of 16S Ockley, (lIist. of the Saraccn,>, vol. i. p. 5, 6,) from an .Arabian IS., represents _\yesha as adycrsc to the substitution of her father in the place of the apo:'>tJe. This fact, so improbable in itself, is unno- ticed by Abu1fec1a, Al Jannahi, and Al 13ochari, the last of "\-rholIl quotes the tradition of Ayesha herself, (Vito :\IohulllIllecl, p. 136. \ïe de :L\1ahomet, tOIll. iii. p. 2;)G.) · Alml\c1.er, the fath('l" of the virgin A) csha. St. :Martin, '.01. xi. p 188 -)1 OF THE ROl\[AN El\IPIRE. 155 ñìs reign, Omar received a mortal wound from the ha.nd of an assassin: he rejected with equal Ï111partiality the nan1es of his son and of Ali, refused to load his conscience with the sins of his successor, and devolved on six of the most respec- table companions the arduous task pi electing a commander of the faithful. On this occasion, Ali was again blamed by his friends 169 for submittinO" his tight to the judgment of men, . I for recognizing their jurisdiction by a ceptmg. a p ace among the six electors. He migl1l: have obtamed theIr suffrage, had he deigned to prornise il s.t ict and ervi e conformity, n t only to the Koran and traditIOn, but lIkewIse to the determi- nations of two senim.s.J70 \Vith these limitations, Oth111an, the secretary of l\faholnet, accepted the government; nor was it till after the third caliph, twenty-four years after the death of the prophet, that Ali was invested, by the popular choice, with the regal and sacerdotal office. The manners of the Arabians retained their primitive simplicity, and the son of Abu Taleb despised the pomp and vanity of this world. At the hour of prayer, he repaired to the mosch of l\i:edina, clotÞ d in a thin cotton gown, a coarse turban on his head, his slippers in one hand, and his bow in the other, instead of a walking-staff. The companions of the prophet, and the chiefs of the tribes, saluted their new sovereign, and gave him their fight hands as a sign of fealty and allegiance. The mischiefs that flow from the contests of alllbition are usually confined to thc times and countries in which they have been agitated But the religious di cord of the friends and enemies of Ali has been. rencwed in every age of the I-Iegira""J and is still maintained in the immortal hatred of the Persians and Turks. I7l The former, who arc branded with the appet- 169 Particularly by hl fripnd and cousin Ahtlallah, the son of Ab- bas, who died A. n. (;S7, wit.h the title of grand doctor of the Ioslcms.. In AbulfeJa he rpcapitulate;:; the important occasions in which Ali had neglected his allltary adviee, (p. 7t), vers.lteiske;) and cOlldude , (p. 85,) 0 pri.n{'cp fidelium, ab que C'ont.roversia tu qu.idem vere fortis cs, at Ï1lOps bOlli eonsilii, ct rcrum gcrelldarum parum callens. 17U I su pect that the two scnior (Abu.lpharûgius, p. IlJ. Ockley, tom. i. p. 371,) may signify not two actual counscllors, but his two predeces or:;;, .A.hubckcr and Om::!r. I';'. The 8chislll of the Per:-:;ialls lli expla.inecl by all our travellers of the last century, especially in the iid and ivth volumes of their mas- ter, Chardin. Niebuhr, though of inferior merit, has the advantage of '\\'dting so late as the -ycar 17G!, (V oya c:ö\ en Arabic, &c., tom. ii. V. 201)-.:!33,) sinco the ineffectual attempt of Xadir Shah to change 156 TnE DECLINE AND FALL lation of Shiites or scctaries, have enriched the 1\lahometan creed with a I!eW article of faith; and if l\Iahomet be the apostle, his comp nion Ali is the vicar, of God. In their pri- vate converse, in t'heir public worship, they bitterly execrate the three usurpers who intercepted his indefeasible right to the dignity of Tmaln anò Caliph; and the name of Omar ex- presses in their tongue the þerfect accomplishment of wicked- lless and impiety.1í2 The ::.o'llnites, who are supported by the general consent and orthodo1\. tradition of the l\lussulmans, entertain a more impartial, or at lea t a l110re decent, opinion. They respect the Inemory of Abubek r, Omar, Othman, and Ali, the holy and legitimate successors of the prophet. But they assign the last and most lmn1ble place to the husband of Fatima, in the persuasion that the order of succession was deterlllined by the degrees of sanctity.1 73 An historian who balances the fo r caliphs with a llRnd unshaken by super- stition, will calmly pronounce that their manners were alike pure and exemplary; that their zeal was fervent, anù ploob- ably sincere; and that, in the midst of riches annt forth in the provinces: their deputies assen1bled at I\Iedina; and the Charcgites, the desperate fanatics who disclaimed the yoke of. subordination 'the religion of the nation, (see his Persian History translated into F.rench by Sir 'Villiam Jones, tom. ii. p. 5, 6, 47, L18, 1<14-155.) -172 Omar is the name of the ùeyil; his murderer is a saint. 'Vhf'n the Per;:;ians shoot with the bow, they fre(lllentl - cry, "l\lay thi arrow go to the heart of O nar!" (V oyages ùe Chardin, tom. ii. p. 239, 240, 259, &c.) 173 This gradation of merit is distinctly ll1nrkcd in a creed illustrated by Reland, (de Relig. 1tlohamm. 1. i. p. 3;;) and a Sonnite ctit de 1a. Croix, (lIist. de Uellgiscan, p. .j:2,,)-5t30,) we find in the. Eiblio- th(>que Orientale 'l'ariklt, a. catalo ue of two or three hundred histo- ries or chronicles of the East, of which not more than three or fpur 176 TilE DECLINE AND FALL fect sketches of a more recent age. 13 .The art and gen LUS ú f history have ever been unknown to the Asiatics; 14 they are ignorant of the laws of criticism; and our lTIonkish chronicles of the same period lTIay be compared to their most popular works, which arc never vivified by the spirit of philosophy and freedOln. The Oriental library of a Frenchman 15 would instruct the rnost learned mufti of the East; and perhaps the A.rabs n1ight not find in a single historian so clear and com- prehensive a narrative of their O\VI1 exploits as that which will be deduced in the ensuing sheets. . 1. In the first year of the first caliph, his lieutenant Caled, the Sword of God, and the scetit de la Croix (Rist. de Timur Bee, tom. i. preface, p. xlv.) have fallen to the ground. 13 The particular historians and geographers will be occasionally in- troduced. The four following titles represent the Annals which have guided me ill this general narrative. 1. Annales Eutychii, Patriarcl æ Alcxandrini, ab EdwarcW Pocockio, Oxon. 16.56, 2 vols. in 4to. A pom- pous edition of an indifferent author, translated by Pocock to gratify the Presbyterian prejudices of his friend Selden. 2. ]listo1"ia Sa.ra- ('cnica Georgii El1nacilli, operâ ct studio Thomæ Erpenii, in 4to., LU[Jd. Bata.vo1"lun, 1625. He is said to have hastily translated a corrupt IS., and his version is often deficient in style and sen:;e. 3. Ilistoria l'Ompendiosa Dynastianun a G7'cfJodo Abulpharagio, interprcte EdwarcW Pocockio, in 4to., Oxon. 1663. Iore useful for the literary than the civil history of the East. 4. Abu1jedæ Annales ...lfoslcmici ad Ann. l-Iegi1"æ ccccvi. a Jo. Jac. Reiske, in 4to., Lipsiæ, 17õ4. The best of our chronicles, both. for the original and version, yet how far below the name of Abulfeda! " e know that he wrote at Hamah in the xi vth century. The three former were Christians of the xth, xiith, and xüith centuries; the two first, natives of Egypt; a 11elchite patriarch, and a Jacobite scribe. 14 1\1. D. Guignes (Hi st. des lIuns, tom. i. pref. p. :xix. xx.) has characterized, with truth and knowledge, the two sorts of Arabian historians - the dry annalist, and the tumid and flowery orator. 15 llibliothèque Orientale, par 1\1. D'llerbelot, in folio, }">aris, 1697. For the character of the respectahle author, consult his friend Theve- not, (Voyages du I.AeVHllt, part i. chap. 1.) His .work is an agreeable :miscellany, which must ratify every taste; but I never can digest the p lphabetical order; and I find him more satisfactory in the l">ersian than the Arahic history. The r ccnt supplement from the papers of INI. Yisdelou and Galland, (in Iolio, La IIayC', 1779,) is of a different cast, a medley of tales, provcrbs, and Chineso antiquities. OF THE R01\IAN EMPIRE. 177 sedentary Arabs had fixed themselves on the verge of the desert; and Hira was the seat of a race of kings who haó embraced the Christian religion, and reigned above six hun. dred years under the shadow of the throne of Persia 16 Tht last of the l\londars:)l: was defeated and slain by Caled ; his son was sent a captive to l\Iedina; his nobles bowed before the successor of the prophet; the people was tempted by the' example and success of their countrynlen; and the caliph accepted as the first-fruits of foreign conquest an annual tribute of seventy thousand pieces of gold. The conquerors, and even their historians, were astonished by the dawn of their future greatness: "In the smne year," says Elmacin, "Caled fought many signal battles: an Ìlnmense nlultitudc of the infidels was slaughtered; and spoils infinite and innu- merable were acquired by the victorious :l\foslems." 17 But the invincible Caled was soon transferred to the Syrian war: the invasion of the Persian frontier was conducted bv less active or less prudent cornmanders: the. Saracens 01 were repulsed with loss in the passage of the Euphr:;ttes; and, though they chastised the insolent pursuit of the l\lagians, their remaining forces still hovered in the desert of Babylon.t The indignation and fears of the Persians suspended for a rnoment their intestine divisions. By the unanimous sentenco of the priests and nobles, their queen Arzema was deposed; the sixth of the transient usurpers, who had arisen and van- ished in three or four years since the death of Chosroes, and the retreat of Heraclius. Her tiara was placed on the head of Yezdegerd, tho grandson of Chosroes; and the same æra, which coincides with an astrono111ical period,18 has recorded 16 Pocock will explain the chronology. (Specimen lIist. .Arabum, p. 66-74,) and D' Anville the geography, (l'Euphrate, et Ie Tigre, p. 12.5,) of the dynasty of the Almolldars. The English scholar under- stood more Arabic than the mufti of Aleppo, (Ockley, yol. ii. p. 3-1;) the French geographer is equally at home in every age and cvery climate of the "\vorId. 17 } ecit et Chaled plurima in hoc anno prælia, in quihus vicerunt lIIui':limi, et illfidclillm immensfl multitudine occi.-;â spolia infinita et innumera sunt nacti, (lIist. Raracenica, p. 20.) The Christian annalist slides into the national and compendious term of infidels, and I often adopt (I hope without scamlal) this characteri'3tic mode of expression. 18 A cycle of .120 years, t110 enù of which an intercalary month of · Eichhorn and Silvestre de Sacy ha.yc written on the obscure history of tr e Monda.rs. -1\1. + Compare throuó'.\cut Malcolm, vol. ii. p. 136. -1\1. 17 THE DECLINE AND FALL the fhII of the Sassanian dynasty and the religion of Zoroas- ter.i-d The youth and inexperience of the prince (he 'was only' fifteen years of age) declined a perilous encounter: the royal standard was delivered into the hands of his general Rustam; and a remnant of thirty thousand regular troops was swelled in truth, or in opinion, to one hundred and twenty thousand subjects, or allies, of the great king. The :Moslems, whose numbers were reënforced from Ì\velve to thirty thou- sand, had.pitched their camp in the plains of Cadesia; 20 and their line, though it consisted of fewer men, could produce ll10ro soldiers, than the unwieldy host of the infidels. I shall h('re observe, what I 111USt often repeat, that the charge of the Arabs was not, like that of the Greeks and Romans, the effort of a firn1 and conlpact infantry: their military force was chiefly fonned of cavalry and archers; and the engage- ment, which was often interrupted and often renewed by sin- gle cOl1'lbats and flying skirrnishes, might be protracted with- out any decisive event to the continuance of several days. rrhe periods of the battle of Cadesia were distinguished by their peculiar appellations. The first, fron1 the well-timed appearance of six thousand of the Syrian brethren, was 30 days supplied the use of our BissextiIe, and restored the integrity of the solaL' year. In a great revolution of 1440 years this intercalation was successively removed from the first to the twelfth month; but IIyde and Freret are involved in a profound controversy, whether the twelve, or only eight of these changes 'were accomplished before the æra of Yezdegerd, which is unanimously fixed to the 16th of June, A. D. 632. How laboriously does the curious spirit of Europe explore the darkest and most distant antiquities! (Hyde de Religione Per- sm'um, c. 14-18, p. 181-211. Freret in the 1vlém. de l'Académie des Inscriptions, tom. xvi. p. 233-267.) 19 Nine days after the death of :Mahomet (7th June, A. D. 632) wo find the æra of Ye7.degerd, (l6th June, A. D. 632,) alid his accession cannot be po::;tponed beyond the end of the first year." His prede- cessors could not therefore resist the arms of the caliph Omar; and these unquestiollaLle dates overthl"OW the thoughtless chronology of Abulpharagius. See Ockley's lIist. of the Saracens, vol. i. p. 130. 20 Cadesia, says the Kubian geographer, (p. 121,) is in margine soli- tudinis, 61 leagues from Bagdad, and two stations from Cufa. Otter (Voyage, tom. i. p" 163) l"eckons 15 leagues, and observes, that the place is supplied with dates and water. · The Rezont Uzzuffå (Price, p. 105) h=..6 :1 strange account of an em- sy to Yezdegerd. The Oriental hist'A'ian take great delight ill these embassies, which {rive them an J'ppor ,.. ity of displaying their Asiatic elo- uence. -':M. - OF TIff. GO IAN E:\IP RE. 179 denommated the day of succor. The day of concussion Inight express the disorder of one, or perhaps of both, of th con- tending armies. The third, a nocturnal tun1ult, received the whimsical n une of the night of ba'rking, frOlTI the discordant clarnors, which were compared to the inarticulate sounds of the fiercest animals. '-rhe morning of the succeeding day'" determined the fate of Persia; and a seasonable whirlwind drove a cloud of dust against the faces of the unbelievers. The clangor of anns was reëchoed to the tent of Rustam, who, far unlike the ancient hero of his name, was gently reclining in.a cool and tranquil shade, amidst the baggage of his camp, and the train of mules that were laden with gold and silver. On the sound of danger he started frOlTI his couch; but his flight was overtaken by a valiant Arab, who caught him by the foot, struck off his head, hoisted it on a lance, and instantly returning to the field of battle, carried slaughter and dismay alnong the thickest ranks of the Persians. The Saracens confess a loss of seven thousand five hundred Inen; t and the battle of Cadesia ib justly de- scribed by the epithets of obstinate and atrocious)H The standard of the monarchy was overthrown and captured in the field - a leathern apron of a blacksInith, who In ancient times had arisen the deliverer of Persia; but this badge of heroic poverty was disguised, and ahnost concealed, by a pro. fusion of precious gems. 2 After this victory, the wealthy province of Irak, or Assyria, submitted to the caliph, and his conquests were firmly established by the speedy foundation of Bassora,23 a place which ever commands tho trade and 21 Atrox, contumax, plus semel rcnovatum, are the wcll-choscn expressions of the translator of Abulfcùa, (Rciskc, p. ß9.) 22 D'Herbclot, Biblioth( que Orientale, p. 297, 318. 23 The reader may satisfy himself on the subject of Bassora by consulting the following writers: Geograph. Nuhiens. p. 121. D'Hcr- belot, Bibliothèque Orieñtale, p. 192. D' A.nville, l' Euphrate ct Ie Tigre, p. -130, 133, 145. Uaynal, lEst. !>hilosonhi(lue des deux Indec;;, tom. ii. p. D2-100. Voyages di Pietro della Valle, tom. iv. p. 370- 391. De Tavernier, tom. i. p. 240-24:7. Dc Theyenot, tom. ii. p. ,Hð -581. D'Otter, tom. ii. p. 45-78. De Niclmhr, tom. ii. p. 172-109. · The da.y of cormora.nts, or according to another reading, the day of rci?forcements. It was the night which was called the night of" snarling. Pnce, p. 114. - M. - t Accorùing to Malcolm's authorities, only three thousand; but he aIMs, "This is the report of l\Iahomcdan historians, who have a great disp!JsitiJI1 to the wonderful in relating the first a.ctions of the faithfu1." '01. i. P 13D. - M. 180 THE DECLINE AND FALL navigation of the Persians. At. the distance of fourscole miles from the Gulf, the Euphrates and Tigris unite in a broad and direct current, which is aptly styled the river of the Arabs. In the 111idway, between the junction and the Blouth of these famous stremns; the new settlement was planted on the western bank: the first colony was composed of eight hundred 1\los1en1s; but the influence of the situation soon reared a flourishing and populous capital. The air, though excessively hot, is pure and healthy: the Ineadows are filled with palin-trees and cattle; and one of the adjacent valleys has been celebrated among the four paradises or gardens of Asia. Under the first caliphs the jurisdiction of this Arabian colony extended over the southern provinces of Persia: the city has been sanctified by the tombs of the cOlnpanions and Inartyrs; and the vessels of .Europe still frequent the port of Bassora, as a convenient station and passage of the Indian trade. . After the defeat of Cadesia, a country intersected by rivers and canals might have opposed an insuperable barrier to the victorious cavalry; and the walls of Ctesiphon or l\Iadayn, which had resisted the battcr'ing-rams of the Romans, would not have yielded to the darts of thc Saracens. Bút the flying Persians were overcome by the belief, that the last day of their religion and ernpire was at hand; the strongest posts were abandoned by treachery or cowardice; and the king, with a part of his family and trcasures, escaped to Holwan at the foot of the l\ledian hills. In the third month after the bat- tle, Said, the lieutenant of Omar, passcd the Tigris without opposition; the capital was taken by assault; and the disor.. dedy resistance of the people gave a keener edge to the sabres of the l\10slems, who shouted with religious transport, " This is the white palace of Chosroes; thiR is the promise of the apostle of God!" The naked 1'obbe.rs of the desert were suddenly cnriched beyond the measure of their hope or knowl- edge. Each chamber revealed a new treasure secreted with art, or ostentatiously displayed; the gold and silver, the vari.. ous wardrobes and precious furniture surpassed (says Abul.. feda) the estimate of fancy or nUlnbers; and another historian ctefines the untold and ahnost infinite mass, by the fabulous computation of three thousands of thousands of thousands of pieces of gold. 2 -1 Some minute though curious fhcts represent :.s Mento ybe. potcst 1l1.1IDcrove comprehcndi quanta spolia. . · 010' TIlE ROi\IAN El\IPIRE. 181 the contrast of riches and ignorance. FrOlll the remote isl. ands of the Indian Ocean a ]arge provision of camphire 2,") had been imported, which is employed with a n1Ïxture of wax to illuminate the palaces of the East. Strangers to the nanle and properties of that odoriferous gum, the Saracens, mistak- ing it for salt, Iningled the camphire in their bread, and wer astonished at the bitterness of the taste. One of the apart- ments of the palace was decorated with a carpet of silk, sixty cubits in length, and as many in breadth: a paradise or gar- den was depictured on the ground: the flowers, fru1ts, and shrubs, were Ï'lnitated by the figures of the gold embroidery, and the colors of the precious stones; and the ample square was encircled by a variegated and verdant border.t The Arabian general persuaded his soldiers to relinquish their claim, in the reasonable hope that the eyes of the caliph would be delighted with the splendid workmanship of nature and industry. Regardless of the n1erit of art, and the pomp of royalty, the rigid Omar divided the prize among his brethren of lVIedina: the picture was destroyed; but such was the in- trinsic value of the materials, that the share of Ali alone was sold for twenty thousand drams. A mule that carried away the tiara ànd cuirass, the belt and bracelets of Chosroes, was overtaken by the pursuers; the gorgeous trophy was pre- sented to the commander of the faithful; and the gravest of the companions condescended to s111ile when they beheld the white beard, the hairy arms, and uncouth figure of the veteran, nostris cesserint. Abulfeda, p. 69. Yet I still suspect, that the ex- travagant numbers of Elmacin may be the error, not of the text, but of thc version. The best translators from the Greek, for instance, I find to be very poor arithmeticians.. 25 The camphire-tI"ee grows in China and Japan; but many hunc1rell wcight of those l11.eane1' sorts are exchanged for a single pound of the more precious gum of Borneo and Sumatra, (H.aynal, lIist. :Philo- soph. tom. i. p. 3G -3(j,5. Dictionnaire d'Hist. atUl'elle par Bomnre. :Millcr's Gardener's Dictionary.) These may be the islands of tha first climate from whence the Arabians imported their cåmphire, (Geograph. Kub. p. 34-, 3.j. D'Herbelot, p. 2:32. · Ocklr.y (Hist. of Saracen!':, '.01. i. p. 2:10) tran!':lates in the same man- ner thrce thousand million of ducats. F;ce Forstc1'ls Mahometalli8111 U n- veiled, vol. ii. p. 462; who makes this innocent doubt of Gibbon, in whieh. :tS to the allloun of the plunder, I vcnture t ) concur, a gr:ne charge of; ma.ccuracy and (hsrespect to the memory of hrpclliu:). The Persian authorities of Price (p. 122) make the booty worth tùrep hundred and thirty millions sterling ! )1. t Compare Price, p. 122. - M. VOl.. V. I G 182 TIlE DECLINE AND FA LT. who was invested with the spoils of the Grcat King. 2G The sack of Ctesiphon was followed by its desertion and gradual dl'cay. The Saracens disliked the air and situation of the place, and Omar was advised by his general to re1110ve the seat of govermllent to the western side of the Euphrates. In every age, the foundation and ruin of the Assyrian cities has been easy and rapid: the country is destitute of stone and timber; aad the nlost solid structures Î are conlposed of bricks baked in the sun, and joined by a cement of the native bitumen. The nalTIe of CuJa 28 describes a habitation of reeds and earth; but the importance of the new capital was supported by the nurnbers, wealth, and spirit, of a.colony of veterans; and their licentiousness was indulged by the wisest caliphs, who were apprehensive of provoking the revolt of a hundred thousand swonls: "Yemen of Cufa," s id Ali, who solicited their aid, "you have been always conspicuous by your valor. You conquered the Persian king, and scattered his forces, till you had taken possession of his inheritance." This mighty conquest was achieved by the battles of JaluJa and Nehavend. After the loss of the former, Y ezdegerd ed from fIol wan, and concealed his shame and despair in the 1110untains of Farsistan, from whence Cyrus had descended with his equal and valiant companions. The courage of the nation survived that of the nlonarch: among the hiUs to the south of Ecbatana or Hamadan, one hundred and fifty thou- sand Persians 111adc a third and final stand for their religion and country; and the decisive battle of Nehavend was styled by the Arabs the victory of victories. If it be true that the flying general of the Persians was stopped and overtaken in a crowd of mules and camels laden with honey, the incident, !6 See Gagnier, Yie de Ia'homet, tom. i. p. 376, 377. I may credit the fact, without bclievinp; the prophecy. 27 Thc.most considerable ruins of Assyria are the tower of BeIns, at Bahylon, and the hall of Chosroes, at Ctesiphon: they have been visited by that ".tin and curious traveller Pietro dell a "\ aUe, (tom. i. p. 713-718, 731-735.)* . 2 Consult the article of Coufah in the Bibliothèque of D'IIerbelot, (p. 277, 278,) and the .second volume of Ockley's JIi'5tory, particularly p. 40 and 153. .. The best modern account is that of Claudius Rich, Esq. Two Me.. moil's on BaLylon. London, 1818. -:M. OF THE ROl\IAN EMPIRE. 183 however slight or singular, will denote the luxurious impedi- ro.ents of an Oriental army.29 The geography of Persia is darkly delmcated by the Greeks and Latins; but the most illustrious of her cities appear to be 1110re ancient than the invasion of the Arabs. By the reduc- tion of IIani.adan and Ispahan, of Caswin, 'rauris, and ReI, they gradually approached the shores of the Caspian Sea: and the orators of l\lecca might applaud the success and spirit of the faithful, who had already lost sight of the 110rthern bear, and had almost transcended the bonnds of the habitable world. 3D Again, turning towards the 'Vest and the ROlllan en1pire, they repassed the Tigris over the bridge of l\Iosul, and, in the captive provinces of Arlllenia and l\Iesopotamia, embraced their victorious brethren of the Syrian army. From the palace of l\iadayn their Eastern progress was not less rapid or extensive. They advanced along the Tigris and the Gulf; penetrated through the passes of the mountains into tho valley of Estachar or Persepolis, and profaned the last sanc- tuary of the l'vlagian empire. The grandson of Chosroes was nearly surprised among the falling col umns and l11utilated figures; a sad emblem of the past and present fortune of Persia: 31 he fled with accelerated haste over the desert of Kirnlan, implored the aid of the warlike Segestans, and sought an hUlllble refuge on the verge of the Turkish and Chinese power. But a victorious army is insensible of fatigue: the Arabs divided their forces in the pursuit of a timorous enemy; and the caliph Othman promised the government of Chorasan 29 See the article of þteltave'lÜl, in D'Herhelot, p. 667, 668; ane1 Voyages en Turquie et en Perse, par Otter, tom i. p. 191.. 30 It is in such a style of ignorance and 'wonder that the Athenian orator .dcscribes the Arctic conquests of Alexander, who ncyer ad- yanceù beyonù the shores of the Caspian. > ..A Uçu"J'(':!oç f W n;ç U!!Y.TOV xeel n t; oli!o1J,uJnlC, ò).i.yov ðEìJ', nlt(TJjC; ,ILEtJU(T'n;i!EI. ..tEschines contra Ctesiphontem, tom. iü. p. 54:, edit. Græc. Orator. lleiske. This memorable cause was pleaded at Athens, Olymp. cxii. 3, (before Christ 330,) in the autumn, (Taylor, præfat. p. 370, &c.,) about a year after thc battle of Arbela j and Alexander, in the pursuit of Darius, was marching towards Hyrcania and Bactriana. 31 'Ve arc indebteå for this curious particular to the Dynasties of Abulpharagiu , p. 116; but it is needless to prove the iùentity of Estaehar and l)crsepoli , (D'Herbclot, p. 3 7 j) and still more need- less to copy the drawings anel dcscril}tions of Sir John Chnrùin, or Corneille Ie Bruyn. · Malcolm, vol. i. p. HI. - M. 184 THE DECLINE AND FALL to the first general who should enter that large and populous country, the kingdom of the ancient Bactrians. The condition was accepted; the prize was deserved; the standard of l\la- hornet was planted on the walls of f-Ierat, l\Ierou, and Balch; and the successful leader neither halted nor reposed till his foaming cavalry had tasted the waters of the Oxus. In the public anarchy, the independent governors of the cities and castles obtained their separate capitulations: the terlns were granted or imposed by the esteeln, the prudence, or the com- passion, of the victors; and a simple profession of faith estab- lished the disti.nction between a brother and a slq,ve. After a noble defence, Harrnozan, the prince or satrap of Ahwaz and Susa, was compelled to surrender his person and his state to the discretion of the caliph; and their interview exhibits a portrait of the Arabian 111anners. In the presence, and by the cOlnl11and, of Omar, the gay Barbarian was despoiled of his silken robes clnbroidered with gold, and of his tiara be- decked with ru.bies and emeralds: "Are you now sensible," snirl the conqueror to his naked captive -" are you now sen- sible of the judgment of God, and of the different rewards of infidelity and obedience?" "..L'\las!" replied Harmozan, " I feel them too deeply. In the days of our connnon igno- rance, we fought with the weapons.of the flcsh, and my nation was superior. God was then neuter: since he has espoused your quarrel, you have subverted our kingdom and religion." Oppressed by this painful dialogue, the Persian complained of intolerable thirst, but discovered SOlne apprehension lest he should be killed whilst he was drinking a cup of water. "De of good courage," said the caliph; "your life is safe till you have drunk this water: " the crafty satrap accepted the assur- ance, and instantìy dashed the vase against thc ground. Omar would have avenged the deceit, but his companions reprc.sented the sanctity of an oath; and the speedy conversion of Hanno- zan entitled hinl not only to a free pardon, but even to a sti- pend of two thousand pieces of gold. The administration of Persia was regulated by an actual survey of the people, 1ho cattle, and the fruits of the earth; 32 and this monument, 14 After the conquest of Persia, Theophanes adds, ai-Tip M -ri;; XQÓHJ) ÈxÉJ. vaH' Ov w'.!()Ç ÙJ.(.tY:!U(f "aL nêtaw' 'd,v {'n' ath"u),' Ot'r.OI.'1Linj" ìyh.no ð chuy!!á(flJ r.Ut ttJ$!!WIlWJI ita; XT1jJ.(:jJ' y.ai (fvn J', (Chronogral>h. p. 283. ) OF -THE ROMAN El\lPIRE. 185 which attests the vigilance of the caliphs, rnight have instructed the philosophers of every age. 33 The flight of Yezdegerd had carried him beyond the Oxus, lnd as far as the Jaxartes, two rivers 34 of ancient and 1110dern renown, which descend frOlTI the 1110untains of India towards the Caspian Sea. lIe was hospitably entertained by Tar- khan, prmce of Fargana,35 a fertile province on the Jaxartes : the king of Samarcand, with the 1'urkish tribes of Sogdiana anù Scythia, were moved by the lamentations and promises of the fallen lTIonarch ; and he solicited, by a suppliant em- bassy, the more solid and powerful friendship of the cmperor of China. 3G The virtuous Taitsong,3ì the first of the dynasty of the Tang may be justly c0111pared with the Antonines of Rome: his people enjoyed the blessings of prosperity and peace; and his dominion was acknowledged by forty-four hordes of the Barbarians of 'I'artary. Ifis last garrisons of Cashgar and Khoten maintained a frequent intercourse with their neighbors of the Jaxartes and Oxus; a recent colony of Persians had introduced into China the astrollOlny of the l\'Iagi; and Taitsong might be alarll1cd by the rapid progress and dangerous vicinity of the Arabs. The influence, and perhaps the supplies, of China revived the hopes of Yezdegercl anù the zeal of the worshippers of fire; and he returned with an army of Turks to conquer the inheritance of his fathcrs. 'rho fortunate T\IoslmTIs, without uq.sheathing their swords, 33 Amidst our meagre relations, I must regret that D'IIerbelot has not founcl al1d used a Persian translation of Tabari, enriched, as he says, with many extracts from the native historians of the Ghebers or :Magi, (Bibliothèque Orientale, p. 1014.) 3-1. The most authentic accounts of the two riYer , the Sihon Jax- nrtca) and the Gihon, (Oxus,) may be found in Sherif ill Eclri i, (Geo- graph. Nubiens. 1'. 138,) Abulfecla, (Descript. CL.orasan. in Hudson, tOlll. iii. p. 23,) Abulghazi Khan, who rcigned 011 their banks, (Hist. Généalogique des Tatar:;:, p. 32,57, 76Ii,) and the Turkish Geographer, a IS. in the king of France's library, (Examen Criti'lue des lIis- toriens d' Alexandre, p. HH-3GO.) :J.:J The territory of 'ergana is des.;ribcù. by Abulfedå, p. 7(1, 77. Jfj :Eo rcde;.?;it angustiarum eundem regem cxsulem, ut Turcici l'e is, ct So diani, ('t Sincnsis, auxìlia mi!:>si:o; litcris imploraret, (Ahul- fed. Annal. p. 74.) The connection of the Persian and Chinese histOl"V is illustrat('(l by li'reret (:\Iém. de l' Académie, tom. xvi. p. 2.15-2511') and De Guignes, (IIist. des lIUll!', tom. i. p. ;) 1-59,) and for thf;) geog- ra.phy oÎ the borders, tom. ii. p. 1-43. 37 Rist. 8i!1Îca, p. 41---1G, in the iiicl pll"t of the Relations Curieu:.es ()f Thcy('not. 16 · 18() THE lJECLINE AND FALL were the spectators of his ruin and death. 'he grandson of Chosroes was betrayed by his servant, insulted by the seditious inhabitants of IHerou, and oppressed, defeated, and pursued by his Barbarian allies. tIe reached the J)anks of a river, and offered his rings and bracelets for an instant passage in a nÚller's boat. Ignorant or insensible of royal distress, the :rustic replied, that four draI11s of silver were the daily prQfit of his Inill, and that he would not suspend his \Vork unless the loss \vere repaid. In this moment of hesitation and delay, the last of the Sassanian kings was overtaken and slaughtered by the Turkish cavalry, in the nineteenth year of his unhappy rcign. 3ö * I-lis son Firuz, an hUlnble client of the Chinese enlperor, accepted the station of captain of his guards; and the l\lagian worship was long preserved by a colony of loyal exiles in the province of Bucharia.t I-lis grandson inherited the regal name; but after a faint and fruitless enterprise, he returned to China, and ended his days in the palace of Sigan. 'rhe male line of the Sassanides was extinct; but the fen1ale captives, the daughters of Persia, were given to the conquerors ill servitude, or marriage; and the race of the caliphs and imams \vas ennobled by the blood of their royal 111others.39 After the fall of the Persian kingdom, the River Oxus divid. ed the territories of the Saracens and of the Turks. This narrow bounùary was soon overleaped by the spirit of the Arabs; the governors of Chorasan extended their successive inroads; and one of their triun1phs \HIS adorned with the 38 I have endeavored to harmonize the various narrativcs of Elma.cin, (lEst. Saracen. p. 37,) Ahulpharagius, (Dynast. p. 116,) Abulfetla, (Annal. p. 71,79,) and D'IIerbclot, (p. 4::>5.) The end of Yezdegcrd was not only unfortunate but obscure. 3 . The two daughters of Yezde;jerd marriecl IIa san, the son of Ali, and ::\Iohammccl, thc son of AbulJeker; and the first of these "\vas the father of a numerous progeny. The daug'hter of J>hirou7. became the wife of the caliph 'Yalid, and their son YeÚ(l deriyeù his genuinè or fabulous ùc:;ccnt from the Chosroes of l>ersia, thc C::esars of Rome, and the Cha2:ans of thc Turks or Avar3, (J)'IIC1'Ùelot, .Dih- !iota Oricntalc, p. 90, -187.) · 1'h(' account of Yezdegerù's death in the Habeib 'usscyr aH(1 Ruuzut uzzu[fit (Price, p. 1(2) is much more probable. Ou the demanù of the f(.\v ùhirems, he offered to the miller his sword, and royal girdle, of inestima- ble value. This awoke the cupidity of the millcr, who murdered l1im, aud threw the body into the stream. -:\1. t Firouz died lea, iug a son called Xi-ni-cha hy the Chinese, ,probably Narses. Ye7.rlcgcrd had t\\O SOllS, Firouz and Bahram. St. )lartill, '01. xi. p. ;)18. - 1\1. OF THE r..Ol\lAl'l Ei\IPIRE. 187 buskin of a Turkish queen v.-hich she dropped in her precipitate fliuht beyond the hills of ßochara. 4o But the final con q uest L1 of of Transoxiana,41 as well as of Spain, was reserved for the glorious reign of the inactive \Va1id; and the name of Cati- bah, the camel driver, declares the origin and merit of his Buccessful lieutenant. 'Vhile onë of his colleagues displayed the first l\Iahometan banner on the banks of the Indus, the spacious regions between the Oxus, the Jaxartes, and the Cas- pian S83., were reduced by the arms of Catibah to the obe- dience of the prophet and of the caliph. 42 A tribute of two millions of pieces of gold was imposed on the infidels; their idols were burnt or broken; the l\lussulman chief pronounce(J a sermon in the new IDosch of Carizme ; after several battles, the Turkish hordes were driven back to the desert; ånd the emperors of China solicited the friendship of the victorious Al'ahs. To their industry, the prosperity of the province, the SogrliRl1a of the ancients, may in a great measure be ascribed; b.ut the advantages of the soil and climate had been under- stood and cultivated since the reign of the l\lacedonian kings. Before the invasion of the Saracens, Cnri7.1TIe, Bochm'a, and Samarcand were rich and populous under the yoke of the sh('pherds of the north.* These cities were surrounded \vith a double wall; and the exterior fortification, of a larg{'r circum- ference, enclosed the fields and gardens of the adjacent district. 40 It was valued at 2000 piC'ces of gold, and ,,'as the prizc of Obei- dollah, the son of Ziyad, a name afterwards infamous by thc murder of lImein, (Ocklcy's History of the Raracens, vol. ii. p. 142, lll .) His brother Salem wag accompanied by his wife, the first Arabian v;oman (A. D. (80) who passed the OXllS: shc borrowed, or rathcr stole, the crown and jc'wels of the prince:.;s of the So dians, (p. 2:31, 232.) 41 A part of Abulfeda's geography is translated by Grcayc;;, inserted in Hu(l.c;on's collection of the minor gcographers. (tom. iii.,) amI t'ntitlcrl De$criptio Chorasmiæ et Mawaralnaltræ, id e:-:t. regionum ex- tra lluvium, Oxum, p. 80. The name of Trausoximw, softer in sound, {'quiyalent in sense, is aptly ufo-ed by l>ctit dc la Croi" (TIist. de Ciengiscan, &c.,) and some modern Oril'ntali::;t , but they are mi:stakcll in ascribing it to the writers of antiquity. 42 The conquests of Catihah m:c faintly marl\..ecl hy Elma6n, (Hi t. Raracen. p. 8-1,) D'lIcrbclot, (Hibliot. Oricnt. ('atbalt, .':!amarc(lml ra.lid.,) anel De Uui311C;-5, (lEst. ùe lIUllS, tom. i. p. õS, õa ) . The manuscript Arabian ami Persian writers in the royal lihrary eon- tain very circumstantial details on th(' contest between the Persians and Amùian!';. :M. St. Martin declillecl this addition to the work of Le Beau, as extending to too great length. St. J\!.u"Ün, vol. xi. p. 3 O. - ::\1. 188 THE DECLINE AND FALL The mutual wants of India and Europe ,vere supplied by the diligence of the Sogdian merchants; and the inestimable art of transforming linen into paper has been diffused from the manufàcture of Samarcanà over the western world. 43 II. No sooner had Abubeker restored the unity of faith .and govcrnment, than he despatched a circular letter to the Ara- bian tribes. " In the nmne of the most mercjful God, to the I'Cst of the true believers. I-Iealth and happiness, and the mercy and blessing of God, be upon you. I praiselhe most high God, and I pray for his propbet IHahOll1et. This is to acquaint you, that I intend to send the true believers into Syria 44 to take it out of the hands of the infidels. And I would have you know, that the fighting for religion is an act -of obëdience to God." His messengers returned with the tidings of pious and 111artial ardor which they had kindlcd in every province; and the camp of l\Iedina was successivcJy filled with the intrepid bands of the Saracens, who panted for action, complained of the heat of tl e season and the scarci[y of provjsions, and accused with impatient mtirmurs the delays of the caliph. As soon as their numbers were complete, Abu- beker ascended the hill, reviewed the n1en, the horses, and the arms, and poured forth a fervent prayer for the success 43 A curious description of Samarcand is inserted in the :Bibliotheca Arabico-Hispana, tom. i. p. 208, &c. The librarian Casiri (tom. ii. 9) relates, from credible testimony, that paper was first imported from China to Samnrcand, A. H. 30, and invented, or rather introduced, at lecca, A. H. 88. The Eseuriallibrar)' contains raper 1\ISS. as old as the ivth or vth century of the Hegira. 44 A separate history of thè conquest of Syria has been composed by AI 'Vakidi, cadi of J3agdad, who was born A. D. 748, and died A. D. 822; he like\';;Ïse wrote the conquest of Egypt, of Diarbekir, &e.* Above the meagre and recent chronicles of the Arabians, 4\1 \Vakidi has the double merit of antiquity and copiousness. His tales and traditions afford an artless picture of the men and the times. Yet his narrative is too often defective, trifling, and improbable. Till something better shall be found, his learned and spiritual interpreter (Ockley, in his History of the Saracens, vol. i. p. 21-342) will not deserve the petulant animaclvcn:ion of lleiske, (Prodidagmata ad Hagji Chalifæ Tabulas, p. 23G.) I am orry to think that the labOl's of Ocldey "\-vere consummated in a juil, (see his two prefaccs to the 1st vol. A. D. 170S, to the 2d, 1718, with the li::;t of authors ut the (,nd ) *' 1\1. Hamaker has clearly shown that neither of these worl.rn from Ueland, l>alestin. tom. ii. p. 666. · . 50 The apostle of a desert, and an army, ,..as obliged to allow this ready succed meum for water, (Koran, c. iii. p. 66, c. Y. p. 83;) but the Arabian and Persian casuists have embarrassed his free permission with many niceties and distinctions, (Reland de Rclig. Iohammcd. 1. i. p. 82, 83. Chardin, V oyagcs en Perse, tom. iv.) ól The bell.<; l'ung! Ockley, vol. i. p. 38. let I much doubt whether this expression can be justified by the text of Al 'Vakidi. or the practice of the time5. Ad Græcos, says the learned Ducange, (Glos- sal'. med. et infim. Græcitrrt. tom. i. p. 774,) campanarum u us scrim; transit et etiamnum ra.ri::;;:,imus est. The olde:::t example which he can find in the Byzantine writers is of the year 1040; but the Yenetia.n'J pretenù, that th.ey intl"Oduced bells at Constautinople ill the ixth century. · This history is now comdclercd not to be the genuine work of Al 'Va kidi. St. Martin, vol. x. p. 213. Accorùing to Úcklcy's transb iop of th-:: :u-ticles of Jerusalem, the Chri ;t!aIJ';; "were not to lin'T but 0111.' to!1t1u i. bells." lIi t. of the Sle. A frigid catastrophe! OF THE RO.:.\IAN El\IPIRE. 201 l\fahomet; and continued, till the season of his rnarty-relon1, tcp6i,tcJlUL KClì ði.JlÓ{JEaL Kl!prrÒJI àL{E.IJI. v. 92J, 2'29. This poetical geographer Ih'ed in the age of Augustus, and his de- scription of the world is illustrated by the Greek commentary of Eustathius, who paid the same compliment to Homer and. Diony.::.ius, (Fabric. nibliot. Græc. 1. iv. ç. 2-, tom. iii. p. 21, &c.) 69 The topography of the J ibanus and Anti-Libanus is excellently described by the learning and sense of TI.cland, (Palestin. tom. i. 1). 311-326.) OF THE ROl\IAN El\ll ' IRE. 205 wlth public and private buildings; and the citizens were illus- trious by their spirit, or at least by their pnJe; by their riches, or at least by their luxury. In the days of Paganism, both Emesa and Heliopolis 'n"l'e addicted to the worship of Baal, or the sun; but the decline of their superstition and splendor has been 111m'ked by a singular variety of fortune. Not a ves- tige remains of the temple of Emesa, which ,vas equalled iìl poetic style to the sununits of l\iount Libanus,7o while the ruins of Baalbec, invisible to the writers of antiquity, excite the curiosity and wonder of the European traveller: 71 The n1easure of the temple is two hundred feet in length, and one hundred in breadth: the front is adorned with a double porîico of eight columns; fourteen n1ay by counted on either side; and each colmnn, forty-five feet in height, is composed of three massy blocks of stone or marble. The proportions and ornaments of the Corinthian order express the architecture of the Greeks: but as Baalbec has never been the seat of a mon- arch, we are at a loss to conceive how the expense of these l11agnificent structures could be supplied by private or n1uni- cipal liberality.7 Frorn the conquest of Damascus the Sar.. 70 - Emesæ fa::;ti;;ia celsa rClliùcnt. Nam ditl'usa solo latus explicat j ac subit auras Turribus in cælum nitcntibus: incola claris Cor studiis acuit . Denique flmnmieomo devoti pectora soli Vitam agitallt. Libanu::> ti'olldo a eacumina turget. Et tamen his certant ccbi fastigia templi. These verscs of the JJatin version of Rufus \vienus are wanting in the Greek orióinal of Dionysill:-3 j and since thcy are likewise unno- ticed by Eustathius, I must, with :Fabl"icius, (Bibliot. Latin, tom. iü. p. 163, edit. Ernesti,) and ag:Ünst Salma,:,ius, (ad V opiscum, p. 366, 367, in Hist. Augu::;t.,) ascribe them to the fancy, rather than the )18S., of A vien us. n I am much better satisfied with l\Iaunclrell's slight octavo, (Jour.. ney, p. 131-139,) than with the pompous fùlio of Dr. Pocock, (Dc- scription of. the East, vol. ii. p. 106-"113;) but cvery preceding Hrcoullt is eclipsed bv the macrnificent dc :;ription and drawincrs of IU. Dawkins and "\V ood, wl o have tran::;ported into Euco-land the l'uins of l'almyra and Bnalbec. 0 Î Thc Orientals explain the prodigy by a ncycr-failing expedient The edifices of llaalbec were constructe..l by the fairic::i or the genii, (lEst. de Timour Bec, torn. iii. 1. v. e. 23, p. all, :n2. Voyage d'Otter, tom. i. p. 8;).) "Tith less absurdity, but with c'lual ignorance, Abulfcda aUll Ibn Uhaukcl ascribe them to the Sahran5 or Aadite:;. Non sunt in omni yria ædifiria ma;;lIiticcnLiora his, (Tabula ::;yriæ r p. 103.) \rOL. V. 18 206 THE DECLINE AND FALL aeens proceeded to Heliopolis and Ernesa: lJlÜ I shall decline the repetition of the sallies and c01ubats which have been aI- read y shown 1\i1 a larger scale. In the prosecution of th war, their policy was not less effectual- than their sword. By short and separate truces they dissolved the union of the ene- IllY; accustomed the Syrians to compare their friendship 1vith their enmity; fmnilìarized the idea of their language, religion, and manners; and exhausted, by clandestine purchase, the luagazines and arsenals of the cities which they returned to besiege. They aggravated the ransom of the 1110re wealthy, or the lTIOre obstinate; and Chalcis alone was taxed at five thousand ounces of gold, five thousand ounces of silver, two thousand robes of silk, and as nlany figs and olives as would load five thousand asses. But the terrns of truce or capitu.. lation were faithf l1y observed; and the lieutenant of the ca.. liph, who had pron1Ïsed not to enter the walls of the captive Baalbec, ren1ained tranquil and Î1TIlTIovable in his tent till the jarring factions solicited the interposition of a foreign master. The conquest of the plain and valley of Syria was achieved in less than two years. Yet the cOlTImander of the faithful reproved the slowness of their progress; and the Saracens, bewailing their fault with tears of rage and repentance, called aloud on their chiefs to lead then1 forth to fight the battles of the Lord. In a recent action, under the ,valls of Ell1esa, an Arabian youth, the cousin of Caled, was heard aloud to ex.. claÎlTI, " l\fethinks I see the black-eyed girls looking upon me ; one of whom, should she appear in this world, allnlankind would die for love of her. And I see in the hand of one of thClTI a handkerchief of green silk, and a cap of precious stones, and she beckons me, and calls out, Come hither quickly, for I love thee." \Vith these words, charging the Christians, he made havoc wherever he went, till, observed at length by the gov- ernor of IIelns he was struck through with a javelin. It was incu1l1bent on thc Saraccns to exert the full power9 of thcir valor and enthusiaslTI against the forces of the en1- peror, who was taught, by repeated losses, that. t.he rovers of the desert had undertaken, and would speedily achieve, a regular and permancnt conquest. From the provinces of Europe and Asia, fourscore thousand soldiers were transported by sea and land to Antioch and Cæsarea: the light troops of the army consisted of sixty thousand Chrif;tian Arabs of the tribe of Gassan. Under the bann('f of Jabalah, the last of theiJ princes, they marclJed in the van; and it was a maxim OF THE ROMAN EmPIRE. 207 of the (';reék , that for the purpose of cutting dimnond, a. dia moud was the most effectual. Heraclius withheld his person fron1 the dangers of the field; but his presumption, or per haps his despondency, suggested a peremptory order, th(Jt the fate of the province and the war should be decided by a single ba.itle. The Syrians were attached to the standard of Rome and of the cross; but the noble, the citizen, the peas- ant, were exasperated by the injustice and cruelty of a licen- tious host, who oppressed theln as subjects, and despised there as straugers and aliens. 73 A report of these mighty prepara- tions was conveyed to the Saracens in their can1p of Emesa; anù tbe chiefs, though resolved to fight, assembled a council: the faith of Abu Obeidah would have expected on the same spot the glory of Inartyrdom; the wisdom of Caled advised an honorable retreat to the skirts of Palestine and Arabia, where they n1ight a wait the succors of their friends, and thE attack of the unbc1ievers. it speedy Inessenger soon returneð from the throne of :1\Iedina, with the blessings ot Omar ane! Ali, the prayers of the vvidows of the prophet, and a reën- forcement of eight thousand 1\los1ems. In their way they overturned a detachment of Greeks, and when they joined at Yennuk the camp of their brethren, they found the pleasing intelligence, that Caled had already defeated and scattered the Christian Arabs of the trib of Gassan. In the neighborhood of Bosra, the springs of :1\Iount I-Jermon descend in a torrent to the plain of Decapolis, or ten cities; and the Hieromax, a name which has been corrupted to Yennuk, is lost, after a short course, in the La! e of Tiberias. 74 The banks of this obscure stream were illustrated by a long and bloody CIl- counter. * On this momentous occasion, the. public voice, and 73 I have read somewhere in Tacitus, or Grotius, Subjectos habent tanquam suos, viles tanqumn alienos. Some Greek officers ravished the wife, and murdered the child, of thcir Syrian landlord; anù :Manuel smiled at his undutiful complaint. 7-i See Reland, l}alestin. tom. i. p. 272, 282, tom. ii. p. 7ï3, 77.J. This learned professor was equal to the task of describin the Holy IJanc1, since he was alike conversant with Greek and Latin, with Hebrew and Arabian. literature. The Yennuk, or IIieromax, is noticed by Cellarins (Geograph. .Antiq. t0111. ii. p. 3!)2) and D'AnvillC', (G(.o raphie Anciellne, tom. ii. p. 185.) . The Arabs, amI evcn Abul- feda himself, ùo not seem to l'Cc0 6 ui;æ the scene of their victory. · Compare Price, p. 79. The army of the Humans is swollcn to '100,000 men, of which ,0,000 perished. - M. 208 THE DECLINE AND FALL the 1noàesty of Abu Obeidah, restored the ccrmmand to the lnost deserving of the l\Ioslems. Caled assumed his station in the front, his colleague was posted in the rear, that the dis- order of the fugitives n1Ïght be c ecked by his venerable as- pect, and the sight of the yellow banner which l\1ahornet had displayed before the walls of Chaibar. The last line was occupied by the sister of Der ll', with the .A.rabian women who :!-lad enlisted in t.his holy war, who were accustomed to wield the bow and the lance: and who in a 1110lTIent of captivity had defended, against thè uncircul1lcised ravishers, thcir chastity and religion. 75 The exhortation of the gcnerals was brief and forcible: "Paradise is before you, the devil and heU-fire in your reur. " Yet such was the weight of the Roman caval- ry, that the right wing of the Arabs vv-as brokcn and separatcd from the 111ain body. Thrice did they retreat in disorder, and thrice were they driven back to the charge by the reproaches and blows of the \YOll1cn. In the intervals of action, Abu Obeidah yi-sited the tents of his brcthren, prolonged their re- pose by repeating at once the prayers of two diffcrent hours, bound up their wounds with his own hands, and administered the comfortable reflection, that the infidels partook of their sufferings without partaking of their reward. Four thousand and thirty of the :Moslems we.re buried in the field of battle; and the skill of the i\.rmenian archers enabled seven hundred to boast that they had lost an eye in that 1TIcritorious service. The vcteraus of the Syrian war acknowledged that it was the hardest and 1110st doubtful of the days which they haJ seen. But it was likewise the 1110st decisive: many thousands of the Greeks and Syrians fell by the s" ords of the Arabs; many ''lere slaughtered, after the defeat, in the woods and 1110Ul1- tains; Hlany. by 1nistaking the ford, ,vere drowned in the waters of the Yermuk; and however the loss may be mag- nified,7û the Christian writers confess and bewail the bloody 7'} These '\"0111en were of the tribe of the Hamyarites, who derived their orio'in from the ancient .Amalekites. Their females 'were accus tomed t; ride on horseback, and to f1:;.ht like the Amazons of old, (Ockley, vol. i. p. 67.) 76 \\T e hilled of them, says Abu Obeidah to the caliph, one hundred amI fifty thous:mù, and Inac1e prisoners forty thou alld, (Ol;klcy, \"01. i. p. 2-11.) As I cannot ùoubt his veracity, Hor ùclieve his com- putation, I must :-;uspert that the Arabic historians indulge thC'JI'l" selve::; in the practice of compo ;Ïllg spceches Rnd letter;:.. for thou hcroc . OF THE ROMAN El\IPI RE. 209 punishn1ent of their sins. 77 rvlanuel, the Roman general, was either killed at Da nascus, or took refuge in the lllonasteryof Mount Sinai. An f'xile in the Byzantine court, Jabalah lamented the manners of Arabia, and his unl ucky pref rence of the Christian cause. 78 1-1e had once inclined to the pro- fession of Islam; but In the pil rimage of l\iecca, Jabalnh was provoked to strike one of his brethren, and fled witl.. amaZClnent f1'o111 the stern and equal justice of the caliph. 'l'hese victorious Saracens enjoyed at Damascus a lTlOnth of pleasure and repose: the spoil was divided by the discretion of Abu Obeidah: an equal share was allotted to a soldier anù to his horse, and a double portion was rescrved for the noble coursers of the Arabian .breed. . After the battle of Yennuk, the Roman arlny no longpr appeared in the field; and the Saracens nlight securely choose, among the fortified towns of Syria, the first object of their attack. They consulted the caliph whether they should march to Cæsarea or Jerusalel11; and the advice of Ali de- termined the iln111ediate siege of the latter. To a profane eye, Jerusale111 was the first or second capital of Palestine; 'but after lVleccå and 1\iedina, it was I'evered and visited bv the devout IVroslems, as the temple of the 1-101y Land whicl-} had been sanctified by the revelation of 1\loses, of Jesus, and of l\1ahomët himself. The son of Abu Sophian was sent with five thousand Arabs to try the first experiment of surprise or treaty; but on the eleventh day, the town was invested by the whole force of Abu Obeidah. He addressed the custom- ary summons to the chief comillanders and people of Ælia. 79 77 After deploring the sins of the Christians, Theophanes adds, (Chr011Qgraph. p. 276,) èo.ioH; Ó i 'j,HlXÒÇ ) A wJ..ì,y. Thz rwv (uâç TÒJI Ì-aùv rlJù .JY laToù, xcd rÍJ'ETCCl 7T'2':'T 1 (po ã '17 Ú;)au; TOÙ t PÛJ,U(Ùy.ov aT (XTotì í, Y.IlTÙ TÒ rli{ dJùJ' ;.fì'w (does he mean Aiznadin?) y.1(i ) IEt.!,uOVXÙJ', xlii ef, v UefO (())' ul,UCtTO xvoÎU)', His account is brief and obscure', but he accuses the numbers of the enemy, the adverse wind..z and the cloud of dust: ,u;, ðun;DhH; (the ltomans) à"l'T[ Oa("JlI a(!( ÈX(J!!O;Ç äLC'( 7;'" Y.OVW(!TÒJ' TTC:'J'1 at, y.ur liVTOVç: ßtíì.J..OJ'TE; Ii (Ç rùç ClTH("1l0VÇ"l uÌJ I E'.;,H U ;;Ooù nOTu wv iY.Eì ànC:IÀo)'TO u!!ðJ 1 '" (Chronograph. p. 280.) 78 See Abulfeda, (Ann L :Moslem. p. 70, 71,) who transcribes the l)Oetical cOID111aint of Jabalah him elf, and somc panegyrical strains of an Arabian poet, to whom the chief of Gassan sent from Con tanti- nople a gift of fivc hundred piece;:; of gold by the hand:; of the mnbas- sador of Omar. 79 In the namc of the city, the profane prevailed oyer the sacred; J,'rusalem was known to the devout ChriRLians, (] u eb. de Martyr. ralcst. c. xi.;) but the 10;;<11 and popular appellation of .Eliu (the 18 * 210 THE DECLIN}; AND FALL c' 11.ealth and happiness to everyone that follows the right vay! 'Ve require of you to testify that there is but one God, and that l\1:ahomet is his apostle. If you refuse this, consent to pay tribute, and be under us forth \vith. Otherwise I shall bring IneH against you \vho love death better than you do the drinking of wine or eating hog's flesh. Nor w'iH I ever stir fro1l1 you, if it please God, tilt I have destroyed those that fight for you, and made slaves of your children." But the city was defended on every side by deep valleys and steep ascents; since the invasion of Syria, the walls and towers had been anxiously restored; the bravest of the fugitives of Yermuk had stopped in the nearest place of refuge; and in the defence of the sepulchre of Christ, the natives and stran- gers might feel SOllie sparks of the enthusiasm which so fiercely glowed in the bosoms of the Saracens. The siege of Jerusalern lasted four months; not' a day was lost with- out SOllie action of sally or assault; the militåry engines incessantly played frOln the ramparts; and the inclemency of the winter was still more painful and destructive to the Arabs. The Christians yielded at length to the perseverance of the besiegers. The patriarch Sophronius .appeared on the walls, and by the voice of an interpreter demanded a cönfer- ence. * After a vain attempt to dissuade the lieutenant of the caliph frOl11 his in1pious enterprise, he proposed, iJ) the nallie of the people, a fair capitulation, with this extraordinary clause, that the articles of security should be ratified by the authority and presence of 0111ar himself. The question was debated in the council of .Medina; the sanctity of the place, and the advice of Ali, persuaded the caliph to gratify the wishes of his soldiers and enemies; and the simplicity of his journey is more illustrious than the royal pageants of vanity and oppression. The conqueror of Persia and Syria was mounted on a red cau1el, which carried, besides his person, a bag of corn, a bag of dates, a woodpn dish, and a leathern bottle of water. \Vhercver he halted, the company, without colony of .JEHus IIaclrianus) has passed from the Romans to the Arabs. (Heland, Palcstin. tom. i. p. 207, tom. ii. p. 835. D'Herbelot, Eib1Jb- thèq-ue Orientale, Cods, p. 260, Ilia, p. 420.) The epithet of At Cods, the IIoly, is used as the proper name of Jerusalem. See the explanation of this in Price, with the prophecy whIch was thereby fulfilled, p. 85. -.M OF THE RO:\IAN El\IPIRE. 211 distinction, was invited to partake of his homely fare, and the repast was consecrated by the p.rayer and exhortation of the commander of the faithfu1. 80 But in this expedition or pil- grimage, his power was exercised in the administration of justice: he reformed the licentious polygan1Y of the Arabs, relieved the tributaries frmn extortion and cruelty, and chas- tised the luxury of the Saracens, by despoiling them of their rich silks, and dragging thern on their faces in the dirt. 'Vhen he canle within sight of Jerusalem, the caliph cried with a loud voice, "God is victorious. 0 Lord, give us an easy conquest! " and, pitching his tent of coarse hair, calmly seated himself on the ground. After ffigning the capitula- tion, he entered the city without fear or precaution; and courteously discoursed with the patriarch concerning its reli- gious n.ntiquities.8 1 Sophronius bowed before his new mas- ter, and secretly muttered, in the words of Daniel, "The abomination of desolation is in the holy place." 82 At the hOU1' of prayer they stood together in the church of the res- urrection; but the caliph refused to perform his devotions, and contented himself with praying on the steps of the church of Constantine. To the patriarch he disclosed his prudent and honorable motive. "lIad I yielded," said Omar, "to your request, the l\Ioslems of a future age would ha ,-e infringed the treaty under color of ilnitating my exmnple." By his command the ground of the temple of Solomon was prepared for the foundation of a 1110sch; 83 and, during a SU The singular journey and equipaóe of Omar are described (be- sides Ockley, yolo i. p. 2.30) by 1vlurtacli, plerveilles de l'Egypte, p. 200-202. ) 81 The Arabg boast of an old prophecy preserved at Jerusalem, and dcscribing the name, the religion, and the person of Omar, the future conqueror. By such arts the Jews are said to have soothed the pride of their foreign masters, Cyrus and Alexander, (JOSCpIl. Ant. Juù. l. xi. C. 1,8, p. 447, 579-58'2.) 82 Tò (JðlJ.vy,ua njf;' i!!r,!HVm;(I' Te', ð"Mv ðtù daJ't;/J.. 'TutÌ 1t"'jU(r,;rov (íTC ;,. TÚ1T4J ÙYlCj>. Theophan. Chronograph. p. 281. This prpdiction, which had already Rervccl for Antiochus and the H.omans, was again refitted lur the present occasion, ùy the economy of Sophrollius, Oll of the decpest theologians of the :\Ionothelite cOlltrover r. 83 According to the accurate survey of D' AnviUe, (Dis ertation sm,' l'ancienne Jerusalem, p. 42-54,) the mosch of Omar, enlarged and embellished by succeeding calil'hs, covered the ground of the ancient temple, (núÂawv TIJV lEïá.}.OV 1'ÚOU ð',tnl,åoJ" says J;>hocas,) a length of 216, a breadth of 172, toises. The Nuùian geographer ùeclare , that this maónificent structure ,,,as second only in size and beauty to tho 212 THE DECLINE AND FALL residence of ten days, he regulated the present and futul'p state of his Syrian conquests. 1\ledina might be jealous, lest the caliph should be detained by the sanctity of Jerusalem or the beauty of Damascus; her apprehensions ,vere dispelled by his prompt and voluntary return to the tomb of the apostle.8 1 To achieve what yet remained of the Syrian war, the caliph had formed two separate armies; a chosen detach- l'!lent, under Anlrou and Yezid, was left in the camp of Pal- estine; ,vhile the larger division, under the standard of Abu Obeidah and Caled, Inarched away to the north against An- tioch and Aleppo. The -latter of thes , the Beræa of the Greeks, was not yet illustrious as the capital of a province or a kingdom; and the inhabitants, by anticipating their submis- sion and pleading their poverty, obtained a moderate compo- sition for their lives and religion. But the castle of Aleppo,85 distinct frorn the city, stood erect on a lofty artificial mound: the sides were sharpened to a precipice, and faced with free- stone; anù the breadth of the ditch might be filled with water froIn the neighboring springs. After the loss of three thon- sand nlen, the garrison was still equal to the defence; and Y oukinna, their valiant and hereditary chief, had Inludered his brother, a holy monk, for daring to pronounce the na111e ùf peace. In a siege of four or five months, the hardest of the Syrian war, gl eat numbers of the Saracens were killeJ and wounded: their removal to the distance of a mile could .Bot seduce the vigilance of Y oukinna; nor could the Chris- tians be terrified by the execution of three hundred captives, whom they beheaded before the castle wall. The silence, and at length the cOlnplaints, of Abu Obeidah infonned the great mosch of Cordova, (p. 113,) whose present state Ir. Swinburne hac;; so elegantly represented, (Travels into Spain. p. 296-302.) 84 Of the many Arabic tarik.hs or chronicles of Jerusalem, (D'Her- helot, p. SG7,) Ockley found one among the Pocock )lSS. of Oxford, t vol. i. p. 2,)7,) 'which he has used to supply the defective narratiye of AI 'Y akidi. b.. The Persian hibtorian of Timur (tom. iü. 1. v. c. 21, p. 300) de- scribes the castle of Aleppo as founded on a rock one hundred cubits in height; a proof, says the French translator, that he had never visited' the place. It is now in the nÜd:st of the city, of no strength, with a single gate; the circuit is about JOO or GOO paces, and the ditch half full of stagnant water, (Voyages de Tavernier, tom. i. p. 149. I'ocock, vol. ii. part i. p. 1JO.) The fortresses of the East are con.. temptiblc to a European eye. OF THE RO IAN El\IPIRE. 213 . caliph that their hope and patience were consumed at the foot of this impregnable fortl'P'ss. " I am variously affected," replied Omar, "by the difference of your success; but I charge you by no 111eans to raise the siege of the castle. Your retreat \'lould diminish the reputation of our anns, and encourage the infidels to fall upon you on all sides. Relnain before Aleppo till God shall determine the event, and forage with your horse ro nd the adjacent country." The exhorta- tion of the commander of the faithful was fortified by a sup- ply of volunteers from all the tribes of Arabia, who arrived in the cmnp on h01"ses or cmncls. Alnong these was Dames, of a servile birth, but of gigantic size and intrepid resolution. The forty-seventh day of his service he proposed, with only thirty men, to make an attelnpt on the castle. . The experi- ence and testimony of Caled recOlnmended his offer; and Abu Obeidah admonished his brethren not to despise the baser origin of Daines, since he himself, could he relinquish the public c re, would cheerfully serve under the banner of the slave. I-lis design was covered by the appearance of a retreat; and the cmnp of the Saracens was pitched about a le:lgue from Aleppo. The thirty adventurers lay in mnbush at the foot of the hill; and Dames at length succeeded in his inquiries, though he. was provoked by the ignorance .of his Greek captives. " God curse these dogs," said the illiterate Arab; "\\"hat a strange barbarous langua 6 c they speak!" At the darkest hour of the night, he scaled the most accessi- ble height, which he had diligently surveyed, a place where the stones were less entire, or the slope less pe"pendicular, or the guard less vigilant. Seven of the stoutest Saracens mounted on each other's houlders, and the weight of the column was sustained on the broad and sinewy baek of the gigantic slave. The foremost in this painful ascent. coulù grasp and climb the lowest part of the Lattlements; they silently stabbed and cast down the: sentinels; and the thirty brethren, repeating a pious ejaculation, "0 apostle of God, help and deliver us!" were successive1y drawn up by the long folds of their turbans. 'Vith bold and cautious footsteps, Dames explored thG palace of the governor, who cdf'bratcd, in riotous rnerriment, the festival of his deliverance. From thence, returning to his companions he assaulted on the inside the entrance of the castle. They overpowered the guard, unbolted the gatp, let down the drawbridge, and de- fended the narrow pass, till the arrival of Caled, with the 21-1 THE DECLINE AND FALL ùawn of day, relieved their danger and assured their con- q nest. Y oukillna, a formiòable foe, became an active and useful prosclyte; anù the general of the Saracens expressed his regard for the 1110st hUlllble merit, by detaining the arrny at Aleppo till Dal11es was cured of his honorable wounds. The capital of Syria was sti!l covered by the castle of Aazaz and the iron bridge of the Orontes. After the loss of those important posts, and the defeat of the last of the Roman armies, the luxury of Antioch 8ü trembled and obeyed. lIeI' safety was ransomed with three hundred thousand pieces of gold; but the throne of the successors of Alexander, the seat of the Roman government in the East, which had been decorated by Cæsar with the titles of free, and holy, and inviolate, was degraded under the yoke of the caliphs to the secondary rank of a provincial town.8 7 In the life of Heraclius, the glories of the Persian war arc clouded on either habd by the disgrace and weakness of his Inore early and his later days. \Vhen the successors of l\Ia- h01net unsheathed the sword of war and religion, he was astonished at the boundless prospect of toil and danger; his nature was il-}dolent, nor could the infil'lll and frigid age of the Cl11peror be kindled to a second effort. The sense of shame, and the ilnportunities of the Syrians, prevented his hasty de- parture fr0111 the scene of action; but the hero was no 1110re ; and the loss of Úamascus and Jerusalem, the bloody fields of .Aiznadin and Yermuk, rnay be irnputed in some degree to the absence or 111isconduct of the sovereign. Instead of de- fending the sepulchre of Christ, he involved the church and state in a metaphysical controversy for the unity of his will ; . 86 The date of the conquest of Antioch by the Arabs is of some im- l)ortance. By comparing the years of the world in the chronography of Theophvnes ,,'ith the years of the Hegira in the history of Elmacin, we hall detcl'mine, that it wáS taken between J auuary 23d and Sep- tember 1st of the year of Christ 638, (Pagi, Critic a, in Daron. Annal. tom. ü. p. 812, 813.) Al \Vakidi (Ockley, vol. i. p. 314) assigns that event to Tuesday, August 21st, an inconsistent date; since Easter fell that year on April 5th, the 21st of August must have been a Friday, (see the Tables of the Art de Véri[-ier les Dates.) ::17 His bounteous edict, which tempieJ. the grateful city to assume the victory of }")harsalia for a pcrpetual æra, is given it! ITLOXEí. l 'f fU/TQOíTÛ).H, [E!!q r.aÎ. (,al ;'

. 90,) afte having been deprn'.ed of Ius ample share o.t the plun?er of Syna by t e Jealousy f Omur, died, possessed only of hIS horsc, Ius arms, anù a smgle slave. Yet Omar was obliged to acknowledge to his lamentÍIlO' parent 'that never lIlother had produced a son like Khalcd. _ 1\1. 0 , VOL.V. 19 218 THB DECLINE A D FALL the seat and support of the house of Ommiyah; and tha revenue the 'Soldiers, the ships of that powerful kingdom were consecrated to enlarge on every side the empire of the caliphs. . But the Saracens despise a superfluity of fame; and their historians scarceJy condescend to mention the subordi- nate conquests which are }ost in the splendor and rapidity of their victorious career. To the north of Syria, they passed lVIount Taurus, and reduced to thei I obedience the province of Cilicia, with its capital Tarsus, the ancient monument )f the Assyrian kings. B yond a second riòge of the same mountains, they spread the flame of war, mther than the light of religion, as far as the shores of t11e Euxine and the neigh- borhood of Constantinople. To the east t11ey advanced to the banks and sources of the Euphrates and Tigris: 92 the long- disputed barrier of Rome and Persia was forever confounded; the wans of Edessa and Amida, of Ðal'a and Nisibis, ,vhich :had resisted the arms and engines of Sapor or N ushirvan, were levelled in the dust; and the holy city of Abgarus might vainly produce the epistle or the image of Christ to an unbe- lieving conqueror. To the 'west the Syrian kingdom is bounded by the sea: and the ruin of Aradus, a small island or penin- sula on the coast, was postponed during ten years. But thf.. hills of Libanus abounrled in timber; the trade of Phænicia was populous in mariners; and a fleet of seventeen hundred barks was equipped and manned by the natives of the desert. The Imperial navy of the Romans fled before them ft.'om the Pamphylian rocks to the Hellespont; but the Spil'it of the emperor, a grandson of Heraclius, had been subdued before the combat by a drearn and a pun. 3 The Saracens rode 92 Al Wakidi had likewise written a history of th conquest of Diarbekir, or Mesopotamia, (Ockley, at the end of the iid vol.,) which our interpreters do not appear to have seen." The Chronicle of Diony- sius of 'felmnr, the Jacobite patriarch, records the taking of Edessa A. D. 637, and of Dara A. D. 641, (Asseman. Bibliot. Oricnt. tom. ii. p. 103;) and the attentive may glean somc doubtful information from the Chronography of Theophanes, (p. 285-287.) 1\lost of the towns of :Mesopotamia yielded by surrendcr, (Abulpharng. p. 112.) 93 lIe (h-eamt that he was at'l'hessalonica, B. harmless nlld umnean- ing vision; but his soothsaycr, or 11is cowardice, understood the sure omen of a defeat concealed in that inauspicious word "L9;; èÛ.J.c? dX' j 1', . It has been published in Arabic hy 1\1. "Ewald, St. la.rtin, ,"ûl. xi. P 2i8; but iÍi; authpnticity is doubted. - M. OF TEE ROl\I.AN El\IPIRE. 219 Inasters of the sea; and the islands of Cyprus, Rhoùes, and the Cyclades, were successively exposed to their rapaciou visits. Three hundred years before the Christian era, the Inemorable though fruitless siege of Rhodes 94 by Demetrius. had furnished that maritime republic with the materials and the subject of a trophy. A gigantic statue of Apollo, or the sun, seventy cubits in height, was erected at the entrance of the harbor, a monurnent of the freedom and the arts of Greece. .After standing fifty-six years, the colossus of Rhodes was over- thrown by. an earthquake; but the massy trunk, and huge fragments, lay scattered eight centuries on the ground, and are often described as one of the wonders of the ancient world. They were cç>l1ected by the diligence of the Saracens, and sold to a Jewish merchant of Edessa, who is said to have laden nine hundred camels with the weight of the brass Inetal ; an enormous weight, though we should include the hundred colossal figures,!)5 and the hree thousand statues, which adorned the prosperity of the city of the sun. II. The conquest of Egypt may be eXplained by the char- acter of the victorious Saracen, one of the first of his nation, in an age when the ITIeanest of the brethren was exalted above - his nature hy the spirit of enthusiasm. The birth of Amrou was at once base and illustrious; his mother, a notorious pros- titute, was unable to decide among five of the Koreish; but the proof of resemblance adjudged the child to Aasi, the oldest of her lovers. 9G The youth of Amrou was impelled by the passions and prejudices of his kindred: his poetic genius was exercised in satirical verses against the person and doctrine of :Mahomet; his dexterity was employed by the Give to another the victory, (Theoph. p. 286. Zonaras, tom. ii. 1. xiv. p. 88.) 94 Evc1.'y passage and every. fact that relates to the isle, the city, auel the colossu of RhoLles, are compiled in the laborious treati e of Icursiu , who has bestowed the same diligence on the two ar er islands of the Crete and Cyprus. See, in the iiid vol. of his works, t.l Rhodus of l\Ieursius, (1. i. c. 15, p. 715-719.) The Byzantine writCl '. Theophancs aud Constantine', have ignorantly prolonged the term to 13f30 years, and ridiculously divide the weig-ht among 30,000 camels. {j Centum colos::;i alium nohilitaturi locum, sav:-; Pliny, with hi.d usual Rpirit. Rist. Natur. xxxiv. 18. w. 96 'Ve learn th.is anecdote ii'om a spirited oIll woman, who reviled to their faces the caliph and his friend. She waf; C'l1C'onragNl 1Iy tho silence of ..\mrou and the lil w r:l1ity fit" :\T oawivah, (Ablllfè l:1, \nnalc Moslem. pIll.) 220 THE DE \ " l }'ALL :reigning faction to pursue ..: l' 'i.jgio\M exiles who had takNt refuge in the court of the .Æ t:I: pian h.ing. 97 Yet he returned fron1 this embassy a secret proselyte; his-reason or his interest determiner] him to renoance the worship of idols; he es('aped frOln :Mecca with his friend Caled ; and the prophet of :l\Iedina enjoyed at the Salne moment the satisfaction of embracing the two firmest chmnpions of his cause. The impatience of .Amrou to lead the arn1Ïes of the faithful was checked by the reproof of GlnaI', who advised him not to seck power and (lominion, since he who is a subject to-day, 111ay be a prince lo-nlorrow . Yet his merit ,vas not overlooked by the two first ;uccessors of l\Iahomet; they were indebted to his arms for .he conquest of Palestine; and in all the battles and sIeges )f Syria, he united with the telnper of a chief the yalor of an ,d.venturous sol ier. In a visit to l\Iedina, the caliph expressed ,). wish to survey the sword which had cut down so many Chlistian warriors; the son of Aasi unsheathed a short and ordl';'lary cin1eter; and as he perceived the surprise of GInar, "Ala. ," said the modest Saracen, " the sword itself, without the Llrüi of its master, is neither sharper nor more ,veighty than the sword of Pharezdak the poet." 98 After the conquest of Egypl! he was recalled by the jealousy of the caliph Oth- Inan; but in the subsequent troubles, the an1bition of a'soldier, a statesman, and an orator, emerged from a private station. His powerful support, both in council and in the field, estab- lished the throne of the Ommiades; the administration and revenue of Egypt were restored by the gratitude of l\Ioawiyah to a faithful friend who had raised hilnself above the rank of a subject; and Amrou ended his days in the palac.e and city which he had founded on the banks of the Nile. His dying speech to his children is celebrated by the Arabians as a model of eloquence and wisdon1 : he deploreò the errors of his youth; but if the penitent was still infect d by the vanity of a poet, he l1light exaggerate the venom and lllischief of his ilnpious composition .U9 97 Gagnier, Vie de Iahomet, tom. ii. p. 4ß, &c., who quotes the Abyssinian history, or romance of Abùel TIaleideR. Yet the fact of the embassy and amòas::;aclor may be allowed. 98 This Raying is preserved by Pocock, (Not. ad Carmen Tograi, I). 184,) and justly applauded by .Mr. Harris, (Philosophieal Arrange- ment!-1, p. 350.) sa For the life and character of Amrou, see Oddey (Hist. of the arncenq, yo1. i. p. 2R, 63, 91, 3: 8, 31 ) 344, and to the end of the OF THE ROMAN \ \YIRE. 221 From his canlp in Palestine, Anlro" bad surprisell or an- tIcipated the caliph's leave for the :'Jv"lsion of Egypt)OO The magnanimous Oinar trusted in hi { od and his sword, which had shaken the thrones of Chos1'("& and Cæsar: but when he - compared the slender force of t e IVloslems with the greatness of the enterprise, he condenln -4 his. own rash. ness, and listened to his timid companions. The pride and the greatness of Pharaoh were familial o the readers of the Koran; and a tenfold repetition of .prodigies hXl' been scarce- 1 v suflicient to effect, not the victory, but th (light, of ix hundred thousand of the children of Israel: \, cities of Egypt were many and populous; their architf' t'ure was strong and solid; the Nile, with its numerous br&\''t hes, was alone an insuperable barrier; and the granary of the Iln- perial city would be obstinately defended by the R01",n pow- ers. In this perplexity, the cOlnmander of the fm.t, ful re- signed himself to the decision of chance, or, in his l rinion J of Providence. At the head of only four thousand .ll rab! I the intrepid Amrou had nlarched away from his statit"l\ c' Gaza when he was overtaken by the Inessenger of O l":'rr " If you are still in Syria,'" said the ambiguous nlanÙt'({ " retreat without delay; but if, at tl.1e receipt of this epißt":''i: you havc already reached the frontiers of Egypt, advanë with confidence, and depend on the succor of God and 0- your brethren." The experience, perhaps thc secret intelli gence, of Amrou had taught him to suspect the mutability of courts; and he continued his march till his tcnts were un questionably pitched on Egyptian ground. lIe there assem bled his officers, broke the seal, perused the epistle, gravely inquired the name and situation of the place, and dcclared his ready obedience to the commands of the caliph. Aftel R sicgc of thirty days, he took possess-ion of Farmah or Pe- lusium; anù .that key of Egypt, as it has been justly namcd, volume; vol. ii. p. .51, 55, 57, 74, 110-112, IG2) and Otter, ( Iém. ùe l'Académie des Inscriptions, tom. xxi. p. 131, 132.) The readers of Tacitus may aptly comlJaTe Vespa'5ian and lucianus with Ioawiyah amI Amrou. Yet the resemblance i;; still m9re in the f:,ituatioll, than in the charaC'ters, of the men. 100 Al 'Vakidi had likewise compofled a separate hi:.;tory of tho conquest of E ypt, wlúch Ir. Ockley could never procure; and hiJ:I own inquiries (vol. i. 344-3(2) have added very little to the origi- nal text of Eutychius, (Annal. tom. ii. p. 296-323, vel's. Pocock,) the lelchitc patriarch of Alexandria, who lh-ccl.threc hunch'ed yearfi after the revolution. 19 * 222 THE DECLINE ANI> :FALL unlocked the entrance of the country as far as the ruins of l-Ieliopolis and the neighborhood of the modern Cairo. On the western side of the Nile, at a snlall distance to the east of the Pyramids, at a small distance to the south of the Delta, 1\Iemphis, one hundrcd anfl fifty furlongs in circum.. fereNce, dL playeù the lnagnificcnce of ancient kings. lTnder the reign of the Ptolernies and Cæsars, the scat of govern- ment was removed to the sea-coast; thë ancient capital was eclipsed by the arts and opulence of Alcxandria ; the palaces, and at length the temples, were reduced to a desolate and ruinous condition: yet, in the age of Augustus, and even in that of Constantine, l\Iemphis was still numbered aIIlOng the greatest and most populous of the provincial cities.l OI The banks of the Nile, in this place of the breadth of three thousand feet, were united by two bridges of sixty and of thi-rty boats, connected in the middle stream by the sInaU island of Rouda, which was covered with gardens and habita- tions)02 The eastern extrelnity of the bridge was terrl1inatcd by the town of Babylon and the camp of a Rornan legion, wh ch protected the passage of the river and the second cap- ital of Egypt. This important fortress, which might fairly .b.3 described as a part of l\femphis or llIisrah, was invested by the arms of the lieutenant of Omar: a reënforcell1ent of f ur thousand Saracens soon arrived in his camp; and. the military engines, which battered the walls, may be imputed to the art and . labor of his Syrian allies. Yet the siege was protracted to seven 1110nths; and the rash invaders were encOlllpasscd and threatened by the inundation of the Nile)03 101 Strabo, an accurate and attentive spectator, ohserves of IIeliopo- lis, 1'IIJl1.l'ÈJ' o{;v iaTl naJl; J;.llõc; nú).tç, (Geograph. Lxvii. p. 1158;) but of :Memphis he declares, nú).,ç ð' ia-ri L!i'L().,j H x i Ei;a1'ð oç I òWTJ[!a l'E'f' > Aì.E Ú1'( !!ElaJ', (p. llGI:) he notices, however, the mixture of inhabitants, and the ruin of the palaces. In the proper Egypt, Am- mianus enumerates :Memphis among the four cities, maximis urlJibus quibus provincia nitet, (xxii. 16;) and the name of :Memphis appears with di'itinetion in the Roman Itinerary and episcopal lists. lU2 These rare and curious facts, the breadth (2 H6 feet) and the bridge of the :Kile, are only to be found in the Danish traveller and the Ñ ubi an geographer, (p. 98.) lU3 From the month of April, the Nile begins imperceptibly to rise; the swell becomes strong and visible in the moon after the summer tmlstice, (Plin. Hist N at. v. 10,) and is usually proclaimed at Cairo on St. Peter's day, (June 29.) A register of thirty successive )ears marks the greatest height of the waters between July 25 and Aug st OF THE ROMAN El\IPIRE. 223 1'heir last assault was bolJ and successful: they passed the rlìtch, which had been fortified with iron spikes, applied their scaling ladders, entered the fortress with the shout of " God is victorious!'" and drove the remnant of the Greeks to their boats and the Isle of Rouda. The spot was afterwards recommended to the conqueror by the easy cmnmunication with the gulf and the peninsula of Arabia; the re111ains of J\.Iernphis were deserted; the tents of the Arabs were con.. \'ertcd into permanent habitations; and the first mosch was blessed by the presence of fourscore companions of Mahomet. 104 A new city arose in their camp, on the east.. ward bank of the Nile; and the contiguous qual'ters of Babylon and Fostat are confounded in their present decay by Ù1e appellation of old Mìsrah, or Cairo, of which they forln an extensive suburb. But the name of Cairo, the town of '7ictory, more strictly belongs to the modern capital, which was foÙnded in the tenth century by the Fatimite ca1ìphs. 1øS It has gradu lly receded from the river; but the continuity of buildings may be traced by an attentive eye fcmn the mon- uments of Sesostris to those of Saladin. JOG Y ot the Arabs, after a glorious and profitable enterprise, Inust have retreated to the desert, had they not found a powerful allìance ìn the heart of the country. The rapid conquest of Alexander was assisted by the superstition and revolt of the natives: they abhorred their Persian oppressors, the disciples of the :n.lagi, who had burnt the temples of 1.8, (Maillet, Description de l'Egyptc, lcttre xi p. 67, &c. Pocock's Description of the East, vol. i. p. 200. Shaw's Travels, p. 383.) 104 J\lurtadi, :Merveilles de l'Egypte, 243, 259. He expatiates on the subject with the zeal and minuteness of a citizen and a bigot, and his local traditions have a strong air of truth and a.ccuracy. tOã D'IIerbelot, Bibliothèquc Orienta.le, p. 283. lU6 The position of New and of Old Cairo is well known, and has been often described. Two writers, who were intimately acquainted 'with ancient anel modern Egypt, have fixed, after a learned inquiry, the city of :M:emphis at Gizclt, dìrectly opposi.te the Old Cairo, (Sicard, Nouveaux }'lcmoires des ]\{issions du Levant, tom. vi. p. 5, 6. Shaw's Observations and Travel'S, p. 2ß6-304. ) Yet we may not disregnrcl the authority or the arguments of Pocock, (vol. i. p. 25--4:1,) Nie- buhr, (Voyage, tom. i. p. 77-1û6,) aud, above all, of D'Anville, (Description de l"Egypte, p. ill, 112, 130-149,) who hav removed l\Iemphis towards the village of {oha.nnah, some miles farther to the south. In their heat, the disputants have forgot that tIle ample space Df a metropolis covers and annihilates the far greater part of the con- trovers)' . 224 1'HE DECLINE AND FALL Egypt, and feasted with sacrilegious appetite on the flesh of the 'god Apis.I 07 After a pe}-iod of ten centuries, the same revolution \v.as renewed by "a similar cause; and in the sup- port of an incOlnprehensible creed, the zeal of the Coptic Christians was equally ardent. I have already eXplained the ()} igin and progress of the l\Ionophysite controver:sy, and the persecution of the emperors, which converted a SBct into a nation, and alienated. Egypt from their religion and govern- ment. '"fhe SarncB'ns we:te received as the deliverers of the Jacobite church; and a seen)'t and effectual treaty was opened during the siege of l\Iempbis between a victorious army and a people of slaves. A rich and noble Egyptian, of the name of .l\lokawl as, had dissembled his faith to obtain the mJmini5;trntion of his province: in the disorders of the Persian war he aspired to indepf:ndence- = the embassy of Mahomet ranked him among princes; but be declined, with :rich gifts and m:nbiguous complin'}cnts, the proposal of a new :rcligion)08 The abuse of his trust exposed him to the resent- ment of Hern,clius: his submission was delayed by arrogance and fear; and his conscience was p1"ompted by interest to throw himself on thø favor of the na ion and t1H support of the Saracens. In his first cûnference with Amrou, he heard without indignation the usual option of the Koran, the tribute, ()r the sword. ''" The Greeks," replied l'Jokawkas, ,r. are de- tennrn.ed to abide tIle deterrnination of the s\\'-ord; but with 1he Greel{s I desire no communion, either in this world or in the next, and I abjure forever the Byzantine tyrant, bis synod ()f Chalcedon, and his. Melchite sIavesG For myself and }ny brethren, l\--e are }'esolved to live and die in tIle profes- sion of the gospel and unity of ChrÏ.st. It is impossible foy us to en1brace the 1"eve1ations of your prophet; but we are des.irous of .peace,. and cheerfully submit to pay tribute and l{)7 See lIerodotus 7 1. iii. c. 27, 8, 2','). Æ1 an, IIis-t. VBr. I. iv. c. 8. Suiðas in .fi)'(J , tom. ii. p. 774. Diodor. Sicul. tom. ii.1. xvii. p. 197, edit. "'\Vesseling. Tw n!QØoj øEf3JJXtrH).} Elç 'Jù í ú, says the last of these historians. lOti l\lokawkns scnt the prophet two Coptic d.àmse-1s, w th tYiO maids and one eunuch, an alabaster vase, an ingot or pure gold, oil, honey, and the- finest 'white l nen of :Egypt,. with 3; horse, a lnule, and an ass, distinguished by their respective qualifications. 'The embassy of 1\la- hornet wa ù{:'Spatchcù. ii-om 1\ledina in the seventh year of thl} Hegira, (A. D.628.) See Gagnier, (Via de l\lahomet, tom. iÏ. p. 255, 256, :d.03,) from Al Jannabi. . OF THI ROliIAN EI\IPIRE. 225 obedience to his temporal successors." The tribute was ascertained at two pieces of gold for the head of every Chris- tian; but old n1en, monks, women, and children, of both. sexes, under sixt,een years of age, were exelnpted frOln thi5 personal assessn1ent: the Copts above and below l\lemphis swore all giance to the caliph, and prornised a hospitable entertainment of three days to every l\Iussulman who should travel through their couptry. By this charter of security, the ecclesiastical and civil tyranny of the l\lelchites was de. stroyed : 10J the anathemas of St. Cyril were thundered fronl every pulpit; and the sacred edifices, with the patrinlony of the church, were restored to the national communion of the Jacobites, who enjoyed without moderation the 010ment of triu111ph and revenge. At the pressing summons. of Alnrou their patriarch Benjamin emerged frOln his desert; and after the first interview, the courteous Arab affected to declare that he had never conversed with a Christian priest of more inno- cent manners and a nlore venerable aspect. l1O In the march from :l\Iemphis to Alexandria, the lieutenant of Omar intrust- ed his sa:fety to the zeal and gratitude of the Egyptians: the roads and bridges were diligently repaired; and in every step of his progress, he CQuid depend on a constant supply of provisions and intelligence. The Greeks of Egypt, whose nUlnbers could scarcely equal a tenth of the natives, were overwhelmed by the universal defection: they had ever been hated, they \vere no longer feared: the rnagistrate fled from hi::; tribunal, the bishop from his altar; anù the distant garri- ,;ons were surprised or starved by the surrounding n1ultitudes. Had not the Nile afforded a safe and ready conveyance to the sea, not an individual could have escaped, who by qirth, or language, or office, or religion, was connected with their od.ious name. By the retreat of the Greeks frOln the provinées of Upper 109 The præfecture of Egypt, and the conduct of the war, had been trusted by Heraclius to the patriarch Cyrus, (Thcophan. p. 280, 281.) "In Spain," said James II., "do you not consult your priests?" " \Ve do," replied-the Catholic ambassador, "and our affairs sucrce(l accordingly." I know not how to relate the phins of Cyru:::, of pay- ing tribute without impairing the revenue', and pf converting ÜllLm' Ly his marriage with the emperOl"s daubhtcr, (Xiccphor. Drcviar p. 17; 18.) un cc the life of Benjamin, in Renaudot, (Jlist. }>atriarch. Alcx- andrin. p. 156--172,) who has enriched the conquest of Egypt with &omc facts from the Araòic tcxt of Se\"cru::; the Jacobite hi::sturian. 226 THE DECLINE AND FALL Egypt, a considerable force was conccted in the Island of Delta; the natural and artificial channels of the Nile atlòrded a suceession of strong and defensible posts; and the road to Alexandria was laboriously cleared by the v'ICtory of the Sar- acens in two-and-twenty days of general or partial com bat. In their annals of conquest, the siege of Alexandria III is per- Imps the most arduous and in1portant enterprise. The first trading -city in the world was abundantly replenished with the means of subsistence anll defence. fIeI' numerous inhab- itants fought for the dearest of human rights, religion and property; and the enmity of the natives seemed to exclude thmn from the comnlon benefit of peace and toleration. The sea was continually open; and if Heraclius had been awake to the public distress, fresh armies of Romans an"d Barbarians Inight have been poured into the harbor to save the spcond capital of the empire. A circmnference of ten miles \\-"oula havc scattered the forces of the Greeks, and favored the strat- agCl s of an active enemy; but the two sides of an oblong sq nare wen covered by the sea and the Lake lVlar\Botis, and each of the narrow ends exposcd a front of no more than ten furlongs. The efforts of the Arabs were not inadequate to the difficulty of the attempt and the value of the prize. From the throne of l\Ieùina, the eyes of 010ar were fixed on the calnp and city: his voice excited to anns the Arabian tribes and the veterans of Syria; and the merit of a holy war was recommended by the peculiar fame and fertility of Egypt. Anxious for the ruin or expulsion of their tyrants, the faithful natives devoted their labors to the serviee of Am- rou: some sparks of martial spirit were perhaps rekindled by the eXalllple of their aBies; anù the sanguille hopes of l\lokawkas had fixed his sepulchre in the church of St. John of Alexandria. Eutychius the patriarch obsen'cs, that 'the Saracens fought with the courage of lions: they repulsed the frequent and almost daily sallies of the besieged, and oon assaulted in their turn the walls and towers of the city. In every attack, the sword, the banner of Amrou, glitte;'ed in III The local description of Alexandria is perfectly ascertained by the master hand of the first of geographers, (D' Auville, Iémoire sur l' Egypte, p. 62-63;) but we may borrow the eyes of the modern travcllers, more especially of Thevenot, (V oyag:e au I..evant, part i. p.381-395,) Pocock, (vol. i. p. 2-13,) and Niebuhr, (Voyage er4 Arabie, tom. i. p. 34-43.) Of the two modern riyals, t;arary and Volney, the one may amuse, the other will instruct. OF THE ROMAN Ei\IPIRE. 227 the van of the Moslems. On a memorable day, he was be- trayed by his imprudent valor: his followers who had en- tered the citade w-ere driven back; and the general, with a friend and a slave, remained a prisoner in the hands of the Christians. 'Vhen Amrou was conducted before the præfect, he relnembcred his dignity, and forgot his situation: a lofty demeanor, and resolute language, revealed the lieutenant of the caliph, and the battle-axB of a s"'Oldier was already raised o strike off the head of the audacious captive. His life was saved by the readiness of his slave, who instantly gave hi'S mas r a blow on. the face, and commanded him, with an angry tone, to be silent in the presence of his superiors. The cred- ulous Greek was deceived: he listened to the offer of a treaty., and h\s prisoners were dismissed in the hope of a more respecta.b1e embassy, tiU the joyful acclan ations of thz camp announced the return of th.eir general, Rnd insulted the folly of the infidels. At length, after a siege of fou.rteen \llonths,1l2 and the loss of three-and-twenty thousand men, the Saracens prevailed: thee Greeks 'embarked thdr dispirited and dimin- ished numbers, and the standard 'Of l\Iahmnet was planted Oll the walls of the capital of Egypt. '" I hã.v:e taken, ' said .A.mr(}u to the caliph, "the gr-eat city of the \Vest. It is im- possible f'Or me to enumera.te the v-ari-ety of its rich-e'S and beauty; a,nd I sha.lI content myself with observing., th.at it contains four thousa.nd pa1aces, fmu thousand baths, four hundred theatres or places of 8.mllS lnent, twe{ve thousand sh9PS for tlie sale of vegetabl-e food, and forty thousan-d trib- utary Jews. The town has been subdued by foree of arm without treaty or capituiation, and t \ Moslems are impatient to seize the fru.its of their victory." J 13 The eomnlander of the faithful rejected with firmness the idea of pillage, and directed his lieutenant t'O reserve the woea.lth and revenue of :nt Both Eu.tychius (A.nnal. tmll. ii. p. 3(9) and Elmaciu {lEst. Sara n. p. 28) concu ia fixing the takÜig of Äl x?ndria. to Friday of th-e new moon of l\[oharr<\m of th.c t wcnticth y ar of the Hcgira. (Dccember 22, A. D. 640.) In r k.olliJlg baekwards four-teen months spent befol"c Alex3.ndria, scycn months before llrlbylon, &('., Aml"oll might ha.ve invadcd Egypt ahout the end of the )'car (31); bu.t we are nssUl'ed that h el1h:red. the cou.nh-y th l th of llayni, 6tl\ of June, tMllrtadi, {e veilles de l'Egrptc p: 16(. Severus, npRd ltenaudot, p. 162.) Th\1 S?lracen, and aftcnJrards Lewis IX. of }"rnnec, haltagi (Critica, tom. ii. p. 824) lIas extracted from Kiccphorus and the Chronicon Orientale the true date of the death of Heraclius, } cbruary 11th, A. D. G41, fifty dals nfter the loss of Alexandria. A fOUl1:h of that time "\\3S \.\fiici nt to convey the in tclligenc . 1i.ã :l\lany treatises of this loypr of labor ('1,,1:. '10TOr;) are still ext.ant; but for readet.s of the present age, thE> printed and unpublished arc nearly in the same predicament. :Moscs and Aristotle are the chief objects of his vel'bose commcntari s, one 0' \vhich is dated as cady as :May 10th, A. D. 617, (Fabric. Bibliot. Græc. tom. ix. p.4.J8-.tG8.) .A P\OdCXIl, (John Lc CIC1'C,) who somctim<>s 35smncd th same name, OF THE ROMAN E:i\IPIRE. 229 intercourse, Philoponus presumed to solicit a gift, inestimable in his opinion, contemptible in that of the Barbarians - the -..oyal library, which alone, among the spoils of Alexandria, had not been appropriated by the visit and the seal of the conqueror. Amrou was inclined to gratify the wish of the granlmarian, but his rigid integrity refused to alienate the 111inutest object without the consent of the caliph; and the well-known answer of Omar was inspired by the ignorance of a fanatic. "If these wl:itings of the Greeks agree with the book of God, they are useless, and neeù not be preserved: if they disagree, they are pernicious, and ought to he de- stroyed." The sentence was executed with blind obedience: the YO] llmes of paper or parchment were distributed to tho four thousand baths of the city; and such ,vas their incredi- ble multitude, that six Inonths were barely sufficient for the consumption of this precious fuel. Since the Dynasties of. Ab.ulpharagius 116 have been given to the world in a Latin version, the tale has been repeatedly transcribed; and every scholar, with pious indignation, has deplored the irreparable shipwreck of the learning, the arts, and the genius, of anti- quity. For my own part, I an1 strongly tempted to deny both the fact and the consequences. * The fact is indeed maryel- louse " Read and wonder! " says the historian himself: and was equal to old Phi]oponus in dilig ncp, and far superior in gOOll sense and real knowledge. 116 Abulpharag. Dynast. p. 114, vcrs. Pocock. Audi quid factum sit et mirarc. It would be CIH.Ue::;s to enumerate the moderns who have wondcred and believed, but I may di:;t.inguish with honor the rational sceptici3ffi of ltenaudt)t, (lIist. Alex. Patriarch. p. 170 :) his- toria . . . habet alifJ. uid Ù,7 u r U J! U t Arabibus familiare est. · Since this period several new 3Iahometan authorities have been ad- duc('d to support the- authority of A.bulpharagius. That. of, 1. Abdollatiph, by Professor 'Vhite: II. Of .:\Iakrizi; I have seen a IS. extract from this 'Hiter: III. Of Ibn Chaledlln: and after them Iladschi Chalfa. See V un Hammer, Geschichte del' Assassinen, p. 17. Reinhanl, in a German Dis- sertation, printed at Güttingen, 17!):!, and St. Croix, (l\Iagasin Encyclop. tom. iv. p. 433,) have examined the question. Among Oriental scholars, Professor \Vhite, l\I. St.. )lartin, Van Hammer, and ih'. de acy, eonsidl'r the fact of the burning the library, by the command of Omar, beyond question. Compare St. Iartill's note, vol. xi. p. 2!)('). A Mahometan writer brings a similar charge ag-ainst t.he Çrnsaders. Thc library of Trip- oli is said to have contained the incr('(lible numher of three mil1ion at' volumes. On t.he capture of the city, Count Bertram of 81. Gi]ps, enter- ing the first ruom, which contained nothing but the Koran, Oldered the whole to be burnt., as the works of the false prophet of .Arabia. See 'Vii- k('l1. Gesch. del' KrcuzzOge, vol. ii. p. 211. - M. VOl.. V. 20. 230 TIlE DECLINE AND FALL the solitary report of a stranger who WrOf( at the end of six hundred years on the confines of :Media, is overbalanced by the silence of two annalists of a l110re early date, both Chris- tians, both natives of Egypt, and the 1110st ancient of whom, the p'atriarch Eutychius, has amply described the conquest of Alexandria))7 The rigid sentence of Omar is repugnant to the sound and orthodox precept of the l\1ahometan casuists: they expressly declare, that the religious books of the Jews and Christians, which are acquired by the right of war, should never be committed to the flames; and that the works of pro- fane science, historians or poets, physicians or philosophers, l11ay be lawfull):applied to the use of the faithfùl. 1l8 A more destructive zeal n1ay perhaps be attributed to the first succes- sors of l\Iahomet; yet in this instance, the conflagration would have speedily expired in the deficiency of n1aterials. I shåll not recapitulate the disasters of the Alexandrian libra- ry, the involuntary flame that was kindled by Cæsar in. his own defence,IJ9 or the mischievous bigotry of the Christians, who studied to destroy the monuments of idolatry.l2o But if we gradually descend from the age of the Antonines to that of Theodosius, we shall learn fr0111 a chain of contemporary witnesses, that the royal palace and the temple of Serapis no longer contained the four, or the seven, hundred thousand volumes, which had been assembled by the curiosity and 111agnificence of the Ptolen1ies. 121 Perhaps the church and 117 This curious anecdote will be vainly sought in the annals of Eutychius, and the Saracenic history of Elmacin. The silence of Abulfeda, l\lurtacli, and a crowd of :Moslems, is less conclusive, from their ignorance of Christian litel"ature. . 118 See Reland, de Jure :Th1ilitari 1'.lohammedanorum, ill his iiicl volume of Dissertations, p. 37. The rea..,on for not burning the reli- gious books of the Jews or Christians, is derived from the respect [hat is due to the name of God. 119 Consult the collections of Frensheim (Supplement. Liviall, c. 12, 43) and Usher, (Anal. p. 460.) Livy himself had styled the Alexan- drian library, elegantiæ regum curæque egregium opus; a liberal encomium, for which he is pertly criticized by the narrow stoicism of Seneca, (He Tranquillitate Animi, c. 9,) whose wisdom, on this occa* r;ion, deviates into non ense. . 120 See this History, vol. iii. p. 146. 121 Aulus Gellius, (Noctes 'Atticæ, vi. 17,) Ammianus larc('1Jinus, (xxii. 16,) and Orosius, (1. vi. c. 1.3.) They all speak in the past tense, and the 'words of .Ammianus are remarkably strong: fuerul1t Bib1io- thecæ innumentbiles; et loquitur monumentorum yeterum concincn'J tides, &c. . OF THE RO}IAN EMPIRE. 231 seat of the patr'mrchs Inight be enriched with a repasitüry of books; but if the ponderous Inass of Arian and l\Ionophysite controversy were indeed consmned in the public baths,]22 a philosopher may allow, with a smile, that it was ultimately devoted to the benefit of D1ï:mkind. J sincerely regret the more valuable libraries which have been involved in the ruin of the Roman empire; but when I seriously compute the lapse of ages, the waste of ignorance, and the calamities of war, our treasures, rather than our losses, are the object of my surprise. lVIany curious and interesting facts are buried in oblivion: the three great historians of Rome have been transmitted to our hands in a nlutilated state, and we are de- prived of many pleasing corn positions of the lyric, imnbic, and drmnatic poetry of the Greeks. Yet we should gratefully remember, that the mischances of time and accident have spared the clas ic works to which the suffrage of antiquity 123 had adjudged the first place of genius and glory: the teach- ers of ancient knowledge, who are still extant, had perused and compared the ,vritings of theil' predeceossors ; 124 nor can it fairly be presumed that any important truth, any useful dis.. covery in art or 'nature, has been snatched away from the curiosity of modern ages. In the adlninistration of Egypt,]2,) An1fou balanced the dernands of justice and policy; the interest of the people of the law, who were defended by God; and of the people of the alliance, who ivere protected by man. In the recent tUlllUlt of conquest and deliverance, the tongue of the Copt::; 12:! Rel1audot answers for versions of the J3ible, IIex.apla, Catenæ Patnun, Commentaries, &c., (p. 170.) Our Alexandrian IS.. if it came from Egypt, and not from Uonstantinople or lount Athos, (\Vetstein, Prolegom. .ad N. T. p.8, &c.,) might possibly be among them. 1 3 I have often perused with pleasure a chapter of Quintiliall, (In stitut. Orator. x. i.,) in which that judicious critic enumerates and appreciates the series of Greek and I.atin classics. 124 uch as Galen, Pliny, .Aristotle, &c. On this subject ,\ otton (Reflections on Ancient and l\loclern Learning, p. 85-9.5) ar ues with !::olid sense, against the lively exotic fancies of Sir .'ViHiam Tem- ple. The contempt of the Greeks for Barbaric sl'icnce wouhl srarrely admit the Indian or LI.:thiopic books into the library of Alexandria; nor is it proved .that philosophy has sustained any real loss from their exelusion. 125 This curious and authentic intelligrnce of Iurtacl1 (p. 28<1-289) has not been discovered either by .Mr. Ockley, or ùy the f;elf-sufficient compile1" of the :\10(1c1"r. UnÌ\'er lal History. 232 TIlE J>E LIN"E AND F Al.L and the sword of the Arabs were most adverse to the tran- quilìity of the province. To the former, Amrou declared, that faction and falsehood would be doubly chastised; by the punishment of the accusers, whom he should detest as his personal enemies, and by the prornotion of their innocent brethren, WhOlll their envy had labored to injure and supplant. lIe excited the latter by the motives of religion and honor to sustain the dignity of their character, to endear themselves by a modest and temperate conduct to God and the caliph, to pare au(l protect a people who had trusted to their faith, and to content themselves with the legitilllate and splendid re\\.lrds of their victory. In the management of the revenue, he dis- approved the sinlple but oppressive mode of a capitation, and preferred with reason a proportion of taxes deducted on every branch frOlll the clear profits of agriculture and com- 11lerce. A third part of the tribute was appropriated to the annual repairs of the dikes and canals, so essential to the public welfare. UnJler his administration, the fertility of Egypt supplied the dearth of Arabia; arid a string of CaIn- els, laden with corn and provisions, covered ahllost without an interval the long road from l\1emphis to l\Iedina.J 2G But the genius of .A.lllrou soon renewed the maritillle cOlllmuni- cation which had been attempted or achieved by the Pharaohs, the Ptolemies, or the Cæsars; and a canal, at least eighty Illiles in' length, was opened from the Nile to the Red Sea.* This inland navigation, which would have joined the l\Iediter- ranean and the lndian Ocean, was soon discontinued as use- less and dangerous: the throne was ren10ved from l\Iedina to 120 Eutychius, Annal. tom. ii. p. 3 O. Elmacin, JEst. Saracen. p. 35. . Many learned men haTe doubted the cxistence of a communication by water between the Red Sea and the Mediterranean by the Nile. Y (>t the fact is positively asserted by the ancients. Diodoruc; Siculus (1. Í. p. 33) speaks of it in the most distinct manner as C'xisting in his time. So, al o, Strabo, (1. xvii. p. 80;5.) Pliny (vol. vi. p. 29) a) s that the canal which united the two seas was navigable, (a hens navigabilis.) The indications furnished by Ptolemy and hy the Arabic historian, Makrisi, show that works were executed uuck)" the reign of Hadrian to repair the canal and extend the navigation; it then receivcd the name of the lliver of Traj.m. Lucian, (in his Pseudomantis, p. 44,) says that he went by water from AlexanùrIa to Clysma, on the Hed Sea. Testimonies of the 6th and of th 8th century show that th communication was not interrupted at that time. See the French translation 0' St1'auo, YOl. v. p. 382. St. 1\hrtin. yol. xi. p. 99. -)[ OF THE RO:i\IAN El\IPIRE. 233 Damascus, and tho Grecian fleets Inight have explored a pas- sage to the holy cities of Arabia.1 27 · Of his new conquest, the caliph Omar had an imperfect kp.owledge fro111 the' voice of fame and the legends of the Koran. lIe requested that his lieutenant would place beforo his eyes the realm of Pharaoh and the All1alekites; and the answer of An1fou exhibits a lively and noi unfaithful picture of that 3Ïngular country.128 "0 cOlnmander of the faithful, Egypt is a compound of black earth and green plants, bo- tween a pulverized mountain and a red sånd. The distance from Syene to the sea is a lTIonth's journey for a horseman. Along the valley descends a river, on which the blessing of the 1\lost High reposes both in the evening and 1110rning, and which rises and falls with the revolutions of the sun and moon. 'Vhen the annual dispensation of Providence unlocks the springs and fountains that nourish the <:arth, the Nile rolls his swelling and sounding waters through the reahTI of Egypt: the fields are overspre d by the salutmy flood; and the vil- lages communicate with each other in their painted barks. 'I'he retreat of the inundation deposits a fertilizing mud foi the reception of the various seeds: the crowds of husbandmen who blacken the land n1ay be cOlnpared to a swann of indus- trious ants; and their native indolence is quickened by the lash of the task-lnaster, and the promise of the flowers and fruits of a plentiful increase. 'rheir hope is seldom deceived; but the riches which they extract from the wheat, the barley, and the rice, the legul11Cs, the fruit-trees, and the cattle, are unequally shared between those who labor and those who pos- sess. According to the vicissitudes of the sc sons, the face of the country is adorned with a silver wave, a verdant emerald, and the deep yellow of a golden harvest." ua Yet this ben- 127 On the e obscure canals, the reader may try to satisfy himself from D' Anville, ( Iell1. sur l'E ypte, p. 1p8-110, 121, 132,) ana 8 learneJ thesis, maintained and prilltecl at Stra bllrg in the year 1770, (Jungendorum marium fluviorumque molimina, p. 3!)--!7 G8-70.) Even the supine Turks have a itated the old project of joining the. two seas, plemoires c1u Baron de Tott, tom. h.) l:ltj A small volume, des Ierveill(' , &c., de l'Egypte, composed in the xiiith century by Iurtadi of Cairo, and translr.!ecl from an ...\..rabic Ì\IS. of Cardinal Mazarin, wa published by Pierre Vatier, P1ris, IGlin. The antiquitic5 of Egypt are wild and legendary; but t.he writer-de- serves credit and esteem for hi5 account of the conque::;t and geog- l'aphyof his native country, (::;ee the correspondence of Amrou anù Gmar, p. 279-289.) 12 In a t" enty years' residence at V üro, the consul ::\laillet had 20* 231 TIlE DECLINE AND FALL cficial order is sOll1etimes interrupted; and the long delay and sudùen swell of thè river in the first year of the conquest mIght afford SOll1e color to an edifying fable. It is said, that the ann pal slJcrifice of a virgin 130 had been interdicted by the piety of Omar; and that the Nile lay sullen and inactive in his shallow bed, till the 111andate of the caliph was cast into the obedient stream, which rose in a single night to the height of sixteen cubits. The admiration of the Arabs for their new conq uest encouraged the license of their rOll1antic spirit. \Ve rnay read, in the gravcst authors, that Egypt was crowded with twenty thousand cities or vilh1ges : 131. that, exclusive of thc Greeks and Arabs, the Copts alone were found, on the assessment, six millions of tributary subjt?cts,132 or twenty n1illions of either sex, and of every age: that three hundred millions of gold or silver were annually paid to the treasury of the caliphs.l 33 0\.11' reason must be startled by these extravagant contemplated that varying scene, the Nile, (lettre ii. particularly p. 70, 75;) the fertility of the land, (lettre ix.) From a college at Cam- bridge, the poetic eye of Gray had seen the same objects with a keencr glance : - '\Vhat wonder in the sultry climes that spread, \\-'here Nile, redundant o'er his summer bcd, From hi;; broad IJOsom life and vcnlure flings, And hroods o'er Egypt with his watery wing:'!: If with adventurou3 oar, and.reaely sail, The dusky people drive before the gale: Or on frail floats to neighboring cities ride, TI.at rise and glitter o'er the umbient tide. Plason's Works and l\lemoirs of Gray, p. 199,200.) 130 Iurtadi, p. 164-167. 1'he reader will not easily credit n human sacrifice under the Christian emperors, or a miracle of the successors of Iaholl1et. 131 iaillet, Description de l'Egypte, p. 22. He mentions this num- ber as the common opinion; and adds, that the generality of these villages contain two or three thousand persons, and that many of them are more populous than our large cities. 132 Eutych. Annal. tom. ii. p. 308, 311. The twenty millions are computed from the follo\ving data: one twelfth of mankind above sixty, onc third below sixteen, the proportion of men to women as seventeen to sixteen, (Recherches sur la Population de la France, p. 71, 72.) The president Goguct (Origine des Arts, &c., tom. iii. p. 26, &c.) bestows twenty-seven millions on ancient Egypt, because the seven- tcC'n hundred companions of Sesostris 'were bOl'n on the same day. 133 :Elmacin, lIist. Saracen. p. 218; and this gross lump is swal- lowed without scruple by D'Herbelot, (Bibliot. Orient. p. 1031,) Ar- buthnot, (Tables of Ancient Coins, p. 262,) and De Guignes, (Rist. des Huns, tom. iii. p. 135.) They might allege the not le:,s extravagant liberality of Appian in favor of the Ptolemics (in præfat.) of seventy- four myriad 1 740,000 talents, an annual income of 185, or near 300, OF THE ROl\lAN El\IPIRE. 235 nssertions; and they will becollle more palpable', if we aSSUflle the compass and measure the extent of habitable ground: a valley frOlll the tropic to l\Iell1phis seldom broader than hvel ve Iniles, and the triangle of the Delta, a flat surface of two thousand one hundred square leagues, con1pose a twelfth part of the ITmgllitude of France. 131 A more accurate re- search will justify a I1101'e reasonable estimate. The three hundred ITliliions, created by the error of a scribe, are reduced to the decent revenue of four Inillions three hundred thousand pieces of gold, of which nine hundred thousand were consumed by the pay of the soldiers.l 35 1.\vo authentic lists, of the pres- ent and of the twelfth century, are circun1scribed within the respectable number of two thousand seven hundred villages and towns.1 36 After a long residence at Cairo, a French con- sul hås ventured to assign about four l11illions of l\lahOlnetans, Christians, and Jews, for the ample, though not incredible, scope of the population of Egypt. 137 IV.. The conquest of Africa, frOlll the Nile to the .Atlantic Ocean,138 w.as first attel11ptetl by the arms of the caliph Otll. millions of pounds sterling, according as we reckon by the Egyptian or the Alexandrian talent, (Bernard, de Ponderibus Antiq. p. 186.) 134 See the measurement of DI Anville, ( 1éll1; sur l'Egypte, p. 23, &c.) After some peevish cavils, M:. Pauw (Rechcrches sur les Egyp- tiens, tom. i. p. 118-121) can only enlarge his reckoning to 2250 square leagues. 135 ltenaudot, Rist. Patriarch. Alexand. p. 334, who calls the com- mon reading or version of Elmacin, error librarii. His own emenda- tion, of 4,300,000 picces, in the ixth century, maintains a probable mcdium between the 3,000,000 which the Arabs acquired by the con- quest of Egypt, (idem, p. 168,) and the 2,400,000 which the sultan of Constantinople levied in the last century, (Pietro della Valle, tom. i. p. 3ij2; Thevenot, part i. p. 824.) Pau w (Recherches, tom. ii. p. 365 -373) gradually raises the l'CyenUC of the Pharaohs, the Ptolemies, and the Cæsars, from six to fifteen millions of German crowns. 136 The list of Srhultens (Index Geograph. ad calcem Vito Saladin. p. 5) contains 2396 places; that of D' Anville, (Uém. sur l'Egyptc, p. 29,) from the divan of Cairo, enumerates 2696. . 137 See :Maillet, (Dcscription de l'Egyptc, p. 28,) who seems to argue with canùor anù jud ll1ent. I am much bcttcr satisficd with the observations than with the l'eading of the Frcnch consul. Ho was ignorant of Greek and Latin literature, and his fancy is too much delighted with the fictions of the Arabs. Their best knowledge is collected by Abulfeda, (Descript. Ægypt. Arab. et Lat. à Joh. David :Michaelis, Göttingæ, in 4to., 1776;) ßnd in two rccent voyages into Egypt, we are amused by Savary, and instructed by Volney. I wish the latter could travel over the globe. 118 l\Iy conq,uest of Africa is drawn from two French interpl'ctcIij of 236 THE DECLINE AND FALL malL Th pious design was approved by the cOlnp nic ns :)f l\fahollJ.et and the chiefs of the tril)es; and twenty thousand .A.rabs 111arched frmn :Medina, WHn the gifts and the blessing of the con1mander of the faithful. They were joined in the camp of l\Ienlphis by twenty thousand of their countrymen; and the conduct of the war was intrusted to Abdallah,139 the son of Said and the foster-brother of the caliph, who had late- ly supplanted the conqueror and lieutenant of Egypt. Yet the favor of the prince,! and the nlerit of his favorite, could not obliterate the guilt of his apostasy. The early conversion of .A.bdallah, and his skilful pen, had recmnmended him to the ilnportant office of transcribing the sheets of the Koran: he betrayed his trust, corrupted the text, derided the errors which he had made, and fled to Mecca to escape the jp.stice, and expose the ignorance, of the apostle. After the conquest of I\Iecca he fell prostrate at the feet of l\lahomet; his tears, and the entreaties of Othman, extorted a reluctant pardon; but the prophet declared that he had so long hesitated, tQ allow time for smne zealous disciple to avenge his injury in the blood cf fIe apostate. \Vith apparent fidelity and effective merit, he derved the rc1igion which it was no longer his interest to desert: his birth and talents gave him an honorable rank among the Koreish; and, in ;; nation of cavalry, Abdallah was renowned as the boldest and lTIOst dexterous horsen1an of Arabia. At the head of forty thousand l\Ioslems, he ad- vanced frOlTI E ypt into the unknown countries of the 'Vest. The sands of Barca might be impervious to a ROlnan legion; but the Arabs were attended by their faithful canlcls; and the natives of the de ert beheld without terror the familiar aspect of the soil and climate. After a painful march, they' pitched their tents before the walls of Tripoli,140 a maritinle .Arabic literature, Cm'donne (Rist. de l' Afrique et de l'Espa ne SOllS Ia Domination des i\rabes, tom. i. p. 8-5.3) and Otter, (Hist. de l' Acaclémie des Inscriptions, tom. xxi. p. 111-12.3, and 136.) They derive their principal information from Novairi, ,,,ho composed, A. D. 1331, an Encyclopæclia in more than twenty volumes. The five gen- eral parts succes:-:ively treat of, 1. Physics; 2. :Man; 3. Animals; 4. Plants; and, i5. History; and the African affairs are diSCllbScd in the vith chapter of the vth section of this last part, (llei::;ke, l)rodidas-mata ad IIagji Chalifæ Tabulas, p. 232-23-1.) .A.mong the older histOl'ians who arc quoted by :K ovairi we may distingubh the original narrative of a soldier who led the van of the )Ioslcms. 139 See the history of Abdallah, in Abulfeda (Yit. Iohammed, p. 109) and Gagnier, (Vie de Iahomet, tom. iii. p. 45-48.) 14,0 The province and city of Tripoli are described by Leo Afric&llus OF THE ROl\1AN EMPIRE. 237 cIty In which the namc, the wealth, and the inhabitants of the province had gradually centred, and \vhich now maintains the third rank among the states of Barbary. A reënforcernent of Greeks was surprised and cut in pieces on the sea-shore; but the fortifications of Tripoli resisted the first assaults; and the Saracens were tempted by the approach of the præfect Gregory 141 to rciinq uish the labors of the siege for the p rils and the hopes of a decisive actiou. If his sianda.rù was fol. lowed by one hundred and twenty thousand men, the regular bands of the empire must have been lost in the naked and disorderly crowd of Africans and 1\loors, who formed the strength, or rather the numbers, of his host. He rejected wi h indignation the option of the Koran or the tribute; and during several days the. two armies were fiercely engaged from the dawn of light to the hour of noon, when theil' fatigue and the excessive heat cOlTIpelled then1 to seck shelter anù refreshment in their respective camps. The daughter of Gregory, a maid of inco111parable beauty and spirit, is said to have fought by his side: frmTI her earliest youth she was trained to mouQ.t on horseback, to draw the bow, and to wield the cimeter; and the richness of her arms and apparel were conspicuous in the forClTIost ranks of the battle. Her hand, with a hundred thousand pieces of gold, was offered for the head of the Arabian generaJ, and the youths of Africa were excited by the prospect of the glorious prize. At the pressing solicitation of his brethren, Abdallah withdrew his person frOln the field; but the Saracens were discouraged by the retreat of their leader, and the repetition of these equal or unsuccessful conflicts. A noble Arabian, who afterwards becan1e the adversary of Ali, and the father of a caliph, had signalized his valor in (in Navigatione et Viag-gi di Ramusio, tom. i. Venetia t 1530, foI. 76, verso) and 1\Iarmo], (Description de l' Afrique, tOIll. ii. p. 562.) The first of these writers "vas a :Moor, a scholar, and a traveller, who com- posed or translated his African geography in a state of captivity at Rome, where he had assumed the name and religion of Pope Leo X. In a similar captivity among the :Moors t the Spaniard :i\Iarmol, a sol- dier of Charles V., compiled his Description of Atiica, translated by D' Ablanco urt into French, (Paris, 1 GG 7, 3 valse in 4 to. ) l::'1 rmol had I'cad and seen, but he is de"ltitute of the curious and cxten:--ive obser- vation which abounds in the original work of Leo tho African. 141 Theophanes, who mentions the defeat, rather than the death, of ÚVJlCj? rQ'lyo'.!ll1! TOVTOJ' TQÉrrOVrJl, ;eal TOlle rrù.' atìrc7í y.niJ'ov,Jt, y.al n-ro,- X,j(}U)lH (I)ÚI.!OV ,Uf7,'t Ú;:'J' /AcrQ{'J11 tJ1Ci(1TQE1/Ja1 / . Theophan. Chrono- gral)h. p. 8"), t'dit. Pari:;. His chronology i., loose and inaccurate. 10 'THE DECI.INE A D FAI.L near twenty years, till their dissensions were composed by the establisillnent of the house of Onl111iyah; and the caliph l\Ioawiyah was invited by the cries of the Africans thenlselves The successors of IIeraclius had been infornled of the tribute which they had been. compelled to' stipulate with the Arabs; but instcad of bcing n10ved to pity and relie,re their distress, they imposed, as an equivalent or a fine, a second tributé of a similar amount. The ears of the Byzantine ministers were shut against the complaints of their poverty and ruin: their def?pair was reduccd to prefer the donlÍnion of a single mas- ter; and the extortions of the patriarch of Carthage, who was invcsted with civil and nlÍlitary power, provoked the sectaries, and even the Catholics of the Roman province, to abjure the religion as weU as the authority of their tyrants. The first lieutenant of :!\loawiyah "acquired a just renown, subdued an important city, defeated an arnlY of thirty thousand Greeks, swept away fourscore thousand captives, and enriched with thcir spoils the bold adventures of Syria and Egypt. 146 . But the title of conqucror of Africa is l110re justly due to his suc- cessor Akbah. He marched from Ðanlascus at the head of ten thousand of the bravest Arabs; and the genuine force of the l\loslems was enlargC{} by the doubtful aid and conversion of 11lany thousand Barbarians. It would be difficult, nor is it necessary, to trace the accurate line of the progress of Akbah. rrhe interior regions have been peopled by the Orientals with fictitious armies aud imaginary citadels. In the warlike prov- ince of Zab, or Numidia, fourscore thousand of the natives might assemble in arms; but the nUl1lber of three hundred and sixty towns is incompatible with the ignorance or decay of husbandry; 147 and a circumference of three leagues will not be justified by the ruins of Erbe or Lambesa, the ancient Hletropolis of that inland country. As we approach the sea. coast, the well-known cities of Bugia 148 and Tangier 149 define 146 Theophane (in Chronograph. p. 293) inserts the vague rumors that might. reach Constantinople of the western conqucsts of the An:tbs; [lnd I learn from Paul 'Varnefrid, dcacon of Aquilcia, (de Gestis Langobard. 1. v. c. 13,) that at this time they sent a fleet from Alexandria into the Sicilian and African seas. 147 See Xovairi, (apud Otter, p. 1l8,) Leo Africanus, (fol. 81, VCr30,) who l"eckons only cinque citta è infinite casale, h.rmol, (Description de l' AfriquE', tom. iii. p. 33,) and Shaw, (Trayels, p. 57, Gõ-68.) 145 Lee African. fol. 58, verso, 59, recto. Iarmol, tom. ii. p. 415. Shaw, p. 43. 149 Leo A!Ì"Íc:m. fo1. 52. :l\larmol, tom. ü. p. 28. OF TIlE ROMAN EMPIRE. 241 the 11101'0 ccrtain lirnits of the Saracen victories. A rernnant of trade still adheres to the commodious harbor of Bllgia, which, in a more prosperous [tge, is s3,id to have contained aImut twenty thousand houses; ann. the plCllty of iron which is duO' frorn the adlacent mountains 1ni.2:ht have supplied a o. '-' braver people with the instruments of defence. The remote" position and venerable antiqnity of Tingi, or Tangier, have been decorated by t1m Greek and Arabian fables; hut the figurative expressions of the latter, that the wall::; were con- structed of brass, and that the roof were covered with gold and silver, 111ay be interpreted as the etllb en1s of strength anù opulence. The province of r,lauritania Tingitana,15o which assnmed the nan1e of the capital, had been in1perfectly discovered and s8ttled Ly the _ Romans; the five culonies were confineù to a narrow pale, and the 11101'e southern parts \\lere seldom explored exc pt b:ý the agents uf luxury, who searched the forests for ivory and the citron-wood,151 and the shores of the" ocean for the purple sheH-nsh. The fearless r\.kbah plunged into the heart of the country, travers('d the wilder- 1)('3::; in which 11is succe sors erected the splendi(l capitals of Fez and I't'Iorocco,l:J:2 and at length penetrated to the verge J,jG Regio ignobili::;, ct vix quic(punn illus+re sortita. parvis oppiJig hahitatur, parva fiumina cmittit, Fila qu:nn viris meliN' et segnitie gentis ob,cura, (Pc.mpollius lcla, i. 5, iii. 10.) lcla d('erYe the more credit, since hi::; own Phccnician ancestors had migrated from Tillgitana to Spain. (.Æe, in ii. G, a pa:::;.,agc of that geogral' ler so cr".lelly tortu1'ecl by Salma:-;iu , Isr'a V o siu , aild the mC'':it virulcnt of critics, Jame Gronovius.) lIe liyed at the time of the tinalreduc+ioll of that country by the cllll)eror Clandiu3: yet lì.l1nr t l;:l:rt; )"(''11' i a 'terw-Lnls. Pliny (IIi"t. Xat. v. i.) cOll1.i:'lains of hi) authoi" too l<'zy to Ì1l1uire, too proud t) c,mfL tlWif i 6 norance of that" iLl and remOle province. 1;;1 The f..)oli..,h fa"lhioa of thi,; citroll-,vooJ l,revailcLl at Home amor.. the men. as much as the ta,..te for pearls amOlE the W01llen. A round board or table, four or íÌ\'e feet in diameter, sold for the pricE" of an estate, (latifl.lndii taxa.tione,) eight, tpn, 0..' twe:ye thouc;and pounds sterling, (P1in. lEst. Xatur. xiii. 9.) I con eive that I must not COnf() llÙ the tree, ci'rns, wiLh that of the fruit, citl"llm. But I am not botanist ellou h to ò .}fine the former (it i like the wihl cypre";) by the vulgar or I.iuuæan name; nor will I dec:.\.le ,vhether the citrum Le the orang-e or the lemon. Salmasiu'i aprear:i to exhaust the sub- ject, hut he too often involves hiHlsL1f ill the web of hi::; di::;orderly · en ùition, (Plinian. Exercita t . t0111.. ii. p. GJG, &c.) . 1;>2 Leo ...\.frican, f')1. l(ì, vel' :0. Mannol, tom. ii. p. 28. Thic; prov- Ince, the fir::;t E"2elH' of the exploits and greatness of the ellerifs, is ofte .mentioned in the curious history of that dyna ty at the end of tha 11ul volume 0; 1<.rl1 o], Description tl l' .Afriq ne. The iiid yo]. of VOL. v. I 2'12 THE DECLINE AND FALL of the At1antic and the great desert. The river Sus descends from the western sides of :Mount Atlas, fertilizes, like the Nile, the adjacent soil, and falls into the sea at a moderate distance from the Canary, or Fortunate, Islands. Its hanles were in- habited by the last of the :1\1oors, a race of savages, without laws, or discipline, or religion; they were astonished by the strange and irresistible terrors of the Oriental arms; and as they possessed neither gold nor silver, the richest spoil was the beauty of the fornale captives, SOll1e of whom were a.fter- wards sold for a thousand pieces of gold. The career, though not the zeal, of Akbah was checked by the prospect of a boundless ocean. lIe spurred his horse into the waves, and raising his eyes to heaven, exclaimed '" ith a tone of a fanatic, " Great God! if my course were not stopped by this sea, I would stil1 go on, to the unknown kingdon1s of the 'Vest, preaching the unity of thy holy name, and putting to the sword the rebellious nations who worship any other Gods than thee." 153 Yet thi l\Iahometan Alexander, who sighed for new worlds, was unable to preserve his recent conquests. By the universa defection of the Greel{s and Africans, he W::iS recalled fron1 the shore's of the Atlantic, and the sur- rounding rnultitudes left him only the resource of an honor- able death. The last scene was dignified by an example of national virtue. An aIllbitious chief, who had disputed the cOlnnland and failcd in the attempt, was led about as a pris- oner in the carnp of the Arabian general. The insurgents had trusted to his discontent and revenge; he disdained their offers, and revealed their designs. In the hour of danger, the grateful Akbah unlocked his fetters and advised hinl to retire; he chose to die under the banner of his rival. Embracing as friends and martyrs, they unsheathed their cimcter , broke their scabbards, and maintained an obstinate combat, till they fell by each other's side on the last of thcir slaughtered COUll- trynlen. 'I'he third general or governor of Africa, Zuhcir, avenged and encountered the fate of his predecessor. He vanquished the natives in many battles; he was ov rthrown the Recherches IIistoriques snr les 1Iaures (lately published at Paris) illustrates thc history and geography of the kingdoms of Fez and )1nrocco. :J Otter (p. 119) has giycn the sb-ong t?ne of fanat cism t.o this ""'fflation, which Cardonne (p. 37) has softened to a PlOUS wIsh of .. . hing the Koran. Yet they ha,-L both the same text of N ovairi \i!.ore their eyes. OF THE ROl\IAN EMPIRE. 243 by a powerful army, which Constantinople had sent to the relief of Carthage. It had been the frequent Pl'actice of the 110m'ish tribes to join the invaders, to share the plunder, to profess the faith, and to revolt to their savage state of independence and idola- try, on the first retreat or misfortune of the Moslem . The prudence of Akbah had proposed to found an AraLian colony in the heart of Africa; a citadel that Inight curb the levity of the Darbarians, a place of refu.ge to secure, against the acci- dents of war, the wealth and the falnilics of the Saracens. 'Vith this' view, and nnder the 1110dest title of the station of a caravan, he planted this colony in the fiftieth year of the IIegira. In the present decay, Cairoan 154 still holds the second rank in the kingdom of Tunis, from which it is distant about fifty rniles to the south: 15.3 .its inland situation, twelve Iniles westward of the sea, has protected the city from the Greek and Sicilian fleets. \Vhen the wild beasts and ser- pents were extirpated, when the forest, or rather wilderness, ,vas cleared, the vestiges of a ROlnan town were discovered in a sandy plain: the vegetable food of Cairoan is brought fron1 afar; and the scarcity of springs constrains the inhabit- ants to collect in cisterns and reservoirs a precarious snpply of rain-\\ater. These obstacles were subdued by the industry of Akbah; he traced a circumference of three thousand and six hundred paces, which he cncompassecl with a brick ,vall ; in the space of five years, tho governor's palace was f;ur- rounded \\-ith a. sufficient nurnber of private habitations; a spacious mosch was supported by five hundred columns of granite, porphyry, and Numidian n1m'bIe; and Cairoan be- came the scat of" learning as well as of elnpire. But these were the glOl'ies of a later age; the new colony was shaken by the succesHivo defeats of Akbah and Zuheir, and the western expeditions were again interrupted by the civil dis- 154 The foundation of Cairoan is mentioned by Ockley, (IIist. of the Saracens, vol. ii. p. 12g, 130;) and the situation, mosch, &c., of the city are dcscribed by l,eo .Africallus, (fo1. 75,) .Marmol, (tom. ii. p. c532,) and Shaw, (p. 115.) :;;5 A portentous, though frequent, mistake has been the confoul'd- iug, from a slight similitude of name, the CY'1"cne of the Greeks, and the Cairoan of the Arabs, t\yo cities which are separated by an interval of a thousand miles along the sea-coast. The great Thuanus has not escaped this fault, the le s excusable aR it is connected with a formal and elaborate des ription }f Africa, (Historiar. 1. vii. c. 2, in tom. i. p. 2-1:0, ('eJerate navy broke the chain that guarJeJ the entrance of the harbor; the l\rabs retired to Cairoan, or Tripoli; the Christians landed; the citizens hailed the ensign of the cross, and the winter was idly wasted in the dream of victory or de- liverance. But .Afl'ica was irrecoverably lost; the zeal and resentment of the commander of the faithful l .)!) prepared in the ensuing spring a more nunlerous armament by sea and land; and the patrician in his turn was compelled to evacuate the post anù fortifications of Carthage. A spcond battle was fought in the neighborhood of Utica: the Greeks and Goths were again defeated; and their timely embarkation saved them frorn the sword of I-Iassan, who had invested the slight and insufficient rampart of their camp. 'Vhatever yet 1'0- rnaincd of Carthage was delivered to the flames, anù the col- ony of Dido 160 and Cæsar lay desolate above two hundreù years, till a part, perhaps a twentieth, of the old circumfer- ence was repeopled by the first of the Fatimite caliphs. In the beginning of the sixteenth century, the second capital of the \V cst was represented by a mosch, a college without stu- dents, twent.y-five or thirty shops, and the huts of five hun- dred peasants, who, in their abject poverty, displayed the a1'- rogance of the Punic senators. Even that paltry village was swept a way by the Spaniards whom Charles the Fifth had statiuned in the fortress of the Goletta. The ruins of Car- thage have perished; and the place rnight be unknown if his Goths; but the fact, though new, is so interesting and so proba.. ble, that I will accept it on the slightest authority. 1;'9 This commander is styletl by :Kicephorus BU(fI).f1j ;fa!!W(,:1'/JIJ', a vague though not improper definition of the caliph. Theophanes introduces the strange appellation of TI I/JJr(J(fI /I'JulIJç, which his inter- preter Goal' explains by ri;:i,. A.::em. They may approach the truth, ill assigning the active p:lrt to the minister, rather than the prince; but they forget that the Ommiadcs ha l only a kateo, or secretary, and. that the office of Vizier was not revived or institutetl till the 13:!d veal' of the IIe ira, (D' Her helot, p. 91 .) w 16U Accordin to Solinus (1. 27, p. 3Cì, eùit. Salmas.) the Carthage of Dido stood either G77 or 737 year ; a various readin , which pro- cetds from the difference of ISS. or editions, (Salma . Plin. Exercit. tom. i. p. 228.) The former of these account , which iYes 82; years before Christ, is more con::;istent with the well-weighelt teatimony of V elleius l)aterculu ; but the latter is preferred by our chronologist, ( Iarsham, Canon. Chron. p. 30S,) as more agreeable to the Hebrew and Tvrian annals. . 21. 246 THE DECLINE A D } ALL sorne broken arches of an aqueduct diù not guide the foo ste )s of the inquisitive traveller.l G1 rhe Cheeks were expelled, but the Arabians were nol yet n1asters of the country. In the interior provincc:s the 1\100rs or Berbers,ltj2 so feeble under the first Cæsars, so formiùable to the Byzantine princes, 111aintaincd a disorderly resistance to the religion and power of the successors of l\lahomet. Under the standard of their queen Cahina, the independent tribes acquired some degree of union and discipline; and as the 1\1001's respected in their fCll1alcs the character of a prophetess, they attacked the invaders with an enthusiasm similar to "their own. '1'he ycteran bands of Hassan were in- adequatc to the defence of Africa: the conquests of an age were lost in a single day; and the Arabian chief, overwhelmed by the torrent, retired to the confines of Egypt, and ex- pected, five years, the promised succors of the caliph. After the retreat of the Saracens, the victorious prophetf'ss assem- bled the l\foorish chiefs, and recommended a measure of strange and savage policy. " Our cities," said she, , and the gold and silver which they contain, . perpetually attract the urn1S of the Arabs. These vile metals are not the objects of our ambition; we content ourselves with the simple produc- tions of the earth. Let us destroy these citics; let us bury in their ruins those pernicious treasures; and when the ava- rice of our foes shall be destitute çf telnptation, perhaps they 161 Leo African. fol. 71, verso; 72, recto. 11m'mol, tom. ii. p. 445 -447. Shaw, p. 80. 162 The history of the word Barbar may be classed under four periods. 1. In the time of Homer, when the Greeks and A '5iatics might probably URe a common idiom, the imitativc sound of Barbar ,vas applied to the ruder tribes, whose pronunciation was most harsh, whose rammar was most defective. J('{ fÇ B(/.Qa' Ct!!( (PW1 01, (Lliaù, ii. 867, with the Oxford Scholiast, Clarke's Annotation, and Henry Stephens's Greek Thesaurus, tom. i. p. 720.) 2. :From the time, at least. of Herodotus, it was extended to all the nations 1"ho wero strangers to the language and manners of the Greeks. 3. In the ago of Plautns, the Romans submitted to the insult, (l)ompeius :Festus, 1. ii. p. 48, edit. Dacier,) and freely gaye themselves tl1(' name of Bar- hlrians. They insensibly claimed an exemption f(n' Italy, and her suhject provinces; and at length removed the disgr ccfnl appellation to the savage or hostile nations beyond the pale of the empire. 4. In every sense it was due to the :Uoors: the famiJiar word was borrowed from the Latin provincials by the Arabian conqueror:", and has justly settled as a local denomination (Barbary) aJong the northern coast of Aft-ica. OF THE ROMAN EMPIRE. 24 win cea.se to disturb the tranquillity of 8. warlike people. j "rhc proposal was accepted with unanimous applau e. Fron1 'ranf;ier to Tripoli.. the buildings, Of at lea.st the fortificati<1nS, were demolished, the fruit-trees were cut down, the mcans of subsistence were extirpat{)d, a fertile and populous garden was changed into a desert, and the historians of a 1110re recent period could discern the frequent traces of the pros rity and devastation of theil' ancestors. Such is the tal-e of the rnod. ern A.rabÌ-ill1s. Y ct I strongly suspect that their ignorance of nntiq \lity, the love of the n1arveilous, ami the fa,,-.:hiol1 of extolling å.o philosophy of Barbarians, has induced then1 to describe, as one voluntary act, the calanlities of t1u--ec hun.. dred years since the first fury of the Donatists and Vall daIs. In the progress of the revolt, Cahina had most probably contributed her share of destruction; and the alarm of universal ruin might tcrrify and alicnate the cities that had reluctantly yielded to her unworthy yoke. They no longer hoped, perhaps they no longer wished, the return of their Byzantine sovcreigns: their presen.t servitude was not ..-\lleviatcd by the benefits of order and justice; and the n10st zealous Catholic must prefer the imperfect truths of the Ko. ran to the bliud and rude idolatry of the 11001':3. 'I'he general of the Saracens w.as again received as the savior of the province: the frienùs of civil socicty conspireù against the s:lvagcs of the land; and the royal prophetess ,,,'as lain in the first battle, which overturned thc baseless fabric of her superstition anù empire. The same 8pirit revived under the successor of IIassan: it was finally queUed by the activity of l\Iusa and his two 80ns; but the number of the rebels may be prcsumcd frmn that of three hundred thousand captives; sixty thousand of whom, the caliph's fifth, were sold for the profit of the public treasury. Thirty thousand of the Barbarian youth were enlisted in the troops; and the pious labors of l\{usa, to inculcate the knowledge Rnd practice of the Koran, accus- tomed the Africans to obey the apostle of God and the com. Inandcr of the faithful. In their climate and government, their diet and habitation, thB wandering 1\loo1's resen1bled the Bedowecns of the desert. \Vith the religion they were proud to adopt the language, namc, and origin, of Arabs: the blood of the strangers and mttiv( s \VD.S insensibly ming!ed; and from the Euphrates to the l\tlantir., th.e same nation might seenl to be diffused over the sandy plains of Asia and Africa. Yet I will not deny that fifty thousand tcnts of !lUrC Arabians 248 THE DECLIKE AXD FAIÆ might be transported over the NiJe, and scattf'red through the Lih)'an dpsert ; and I am not ignorant that five of the :Moorish tribes still retain their barbaruus idio"n1, with the appeHation and character of 'll...'lLÍ/.c ....t\fricans. J63 V. In the pro3ress of cont[11Pst from the north and south, the Goths and the SarDc('n encountered each other on the confines of Europe and Africa. In the opinion of the latter, the difference of rc!i iün is a rCásonable ground of enmity and warfare.I G4 As early as the tirne of Othmau,lGJ their piratical squad- rons had ravüf!pd the coast of .Andalusia; IGò nor had they forgotten the relief of Carthage by the Gothic succors. In that age, as well as in tIle present, the kings of Spain were pos3cssed of the fortress of Ceuta; one of the columns of Jlercu:es, which is d 1 vided by a narrow strait frorn the oppo- site pillar or point of Europe. A. small portion of l\Iauri1ania was still wanting to th(' AÙic[ll1 conquf'st; but ?vl11 a, in the pride of victory, was rcpuJscfl from the walls of Ccuta, by the vigilance and courage {Jf Count Julian, the general of the Goths. Fron1 his disappointment and perplexity, l\1usa was relieved hy an unexpected message of the Christian cJ1Ícf, who offcretl his place, his person, anll his sword, to the suc- cessors of l\IahoI11ct, and solicited the d isgrLlccful hOllor of introducing their anTIS into the heart of Spain.lt>7 If we 163 The first book of Leo AfriC'anns, and the bservations of Dr. Shaw, (p. 220) 2 3, :? ;-, 2-17, &c.,) will throw some li3'ht on the rovillg' tribes of l3arban-, of Ar Ì'Ían or \loorish descent. But Shaw had seen these say:...gcs ,\ ith distant terror; and Leo, a capti,e in the V atic m, appears to hnxc lost more of his Ardbic, than he could ac- quire of Greek or Homan, lcarnin . ,Iany of his gl"().<'S mistakes might be detC'ctecl in the first period of the lahometan hif'tory. le.. In a confercnce with a prin('e of the Grceks, .;\mrou o1servcd, that their rdil"ion was Úiifcrellt; upon which score it '\"a lawful for lJlothers to qU lTcl. Ockley's lIi'5tory of the tiaracclls, vol. i. p. 328. 165 Abu]feda, Annal. ::\loslem. p. 78, Yers. }{ciske. lC6 The 112111C of Andnlusia is aprlicd by the ....\.raus not only to the modern province, but to the whole renill ula of Spain, (Geograph. Nub. p. 1.31. V'IIerbclot, Bihliot. Orient. p. 111, 115.) The ct) mol- ogy has 11een mo...t improbably deducCll from Yandalll. i:t, country of the Yandals, (lYAnyille, Etats de l'Em'ope, p. 116, 147, &c.) Butthc Hanclalusia of Casiri, which sigulÍÌe::i, in AIabic, the region of the evenin. r , of the \Ye:;t, ill a ,yard, the IIespel"Ía of the Greck , is per- fectly ppositc, (Bibliot. Arabico-Hispana, tom. ii. p. 327, &c.) 167 The fall and re'iurrection of the Gothic monarchy are related by :Mariana, (tom. í. p. 23S- 60, 1. vi. c. ID-26, 1., ii. c. 1, 2.) That OF THE RO L\N E='IPIR.E. 19 inquire into the cause of his treachery, the Spaniards will repeat the popJlar story of his daughter Canl; 1G8 * of a virgin who was seduced., or ravished, by her sovereign; of a faLfieI' who sacrificed his religion and country to the thirst of revenge. The passions of princes have often been licentious and dC'structivc; hut this well-known tale, romantic in itself, is inùifferently supported by external evidence; and the his- tory of Spain will" suggest some motives of interest and policy 1110re congenial to the breast of a veteran statesman.I 69 After the decease or deposition of 'Vitiza, his two sons were sup- planted by the arnbition of Roderic, a noble Goth, whose father, the duke or governol' of a province, had fallen a victiln to tbe preceùing tyranny. The Inonarchy was still elective; but the sons of \Vitiza, educated on the steps of the thronu, were impatient of a private station. Their resentment was the more dangerous, as it was varnished with the dissimula- tion of courts: their followers were excited by the remem- brance of fhvors and the promise of a revolution; and their historian ha<; infu".ell into hi... noble work (IIi:.;toriæ de Rebus Hispa- niæ, libri xx . Ha æ Comitum, 1733, ia four volumes in folio, with the Continuation of )1iniana) the style and spirit of a Roman classic; and after the xiith century, hi;;; knowledge and judgment may be safely tru::ited. TIut the Jesuit is not exempt from the prejudices of hi::, order; he adopts and adorns, like his rival Buchanan, the most ab urtl of the national legends; he is too careless of criticism and chronology, and supplies, from a lively fancy, the chasms of historical evidence. These chasms are large and frequent; Hoderic, archbishop of Toledo, the father of the Spanish history, Ii ,oed five h unclretl years after the conquest of the Arnb , and the more eady accounts are com- pri.,ed in some meagre lines of the blind chronicles of Isidore of Bada- joz, (Pac('n::ii ,) and of . \lphonso III., king of Leon, which I have seen only in the annals of Pa..;i. 1G La viol (says Yoltaire) C.:5t aussi d.ifficile fl faire CJ.U' l prouver. DC3 Evêque3 se roient ils li nés pour une fiUe? (IIi.-.;t. Gén&ralc, c. xxvi.) IIi., argument i:-i not logically conclusive. 16:} III the story of Cavil, )Iariana (1. vi. c. 21, p. 241, 242) seems to vie with the Lucrecia of Livy. Like the ancients, he seldom quotes; amI. the oldest testimony of lJaronius, (A.nnal. Eccle . A. I>. 71ð, o. 10,) that of Lucas Tudensis, a Gallician deacon of the xiiith contury, only says, Cava, quam 1'1'0 concubin, the n traitors and infidels of a foreign land., he made a less danger- ous trial of their strength and veracity. One hundred Arabs, and four hundred Africans, passed over, in four vessels, from Tangier or Ceuta: the place of their descent on the opposÎle shore of the strait is marked by the name of Tarif their chief; ar:d the date of this Inemorable event lïl is fixed to the month of Ramadan., of the ninety-first year of the Hegira, to ihe lTlOnth of July, seven hundred and forty-eight years from the Spanish æra of Cæsar,172 seven hundred and ten after the b rth of Christ. From their first station, they marched eighteen nliles through a hilly country to the castle and town of Julian: 173 on which (it is still called Algczire) they bestowed the nan1e of the Green 1s1.tnd, from a verdant cape that advances into the sea. Their hospitable entertainment, the Christians who joined their standi.'ud, their inroad into a fertile and unguarded (Rist. def; Huns, tom. i. p. 34:7-3.50.) The librarian of the Bscuri.ðl has not satisfied my hope...;: yct he appears to hav.e scarched witlL / diligence his broken materials; and thc hi tory of the conqu,-,st if illustrated by some valuable fragmcnts of the genuine Razis, (wh,\. wrote at Corùuba, A. II. 300,) of Dcn HaÚI, &c. See llihiiot. Arabico 4 Hispana, tom. ii. p. 3 ., 10,,), lOG, 182, 252, 319-3iU. On this occa"' sion, the industry of .Pagi has been aided by the Arabic learning of his fricnd the Abbé de Longu.cruc, and to their joint l tbors I am dceply indebted. 171 A mistake of Roderic of Toledo, in compH-ring the lunar years of the IIczira with the Julian yea.rs of the ....i::ra, has determined Baro. nius, :M:ariana, and the cro.wd of Sp